Unit 15: Acquisition of English as a Second Language
i. describe the approaches to the acquisition of ESL, and
ii. point out the essence of communicative competence in second language learning.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1Interlanguage and the Acquisition of ESL
The first major attempts at conceptualizing the acquisition of second language resulted in what is now known as Interlanguage. Based on the work of Corder (1967) and Selinker (1972), the concept of interlanguage refers to the set of linguistic strategies which learners develop in the process of acquiring a second language. It is a system that operates in-between the learner‟s first language and the target language, in this case English. Such forms are neither correct in English nor in the first language yet they serve as attempts by the learner to get close to the second language. According to Yule (1996:1996) „the language produced by learners contains a large number of „errors‟
which seems to have no connection to the forms of either L ı or L 2‟. Scholars have equally observed that interlanguage often results from three major sources:
i. interference from the mother-tongue or first language (L ı);
ii. over-simplification of the rules of the target language; and iii. over generalization.
These factors sometimes makes the learner to produce such utterances as :
The mens comes.
He go house every day.
The boy know the place.
We come Lagos yesterday.
They school is far.
Yule (1996) along with many other scholars agrees that some learners do not go beyond the interlanguage in their attempt to acquire a second language. At this stage such learners experience what is termed as „fossilization‟. This notion has led the development of the theory of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
3.2 Formal and Informal Approaches to the Acquisition of ESL
Acquiring a second language especially in ESL environment has been observed to follow two distinct forms: formal learning and informal or interactional approach.
1. The Formal Approach
This approach lays emphasis on the acquisition of ESL through formal education. The educational system therefore plays a focal role in this approach. In line with this, there is
the tendency to expose the child to English as early as possible. The various stages of the educational system and the expected learning outcomes are illustrated below:
i. Creche – (6 months to 1and a half years): Watching educative cartoons and playing with toys. Basically, children learn to sing songs on the letters of the alphabet.
ii. Kindergarten – (2 to 3years): the children are expected to be able to identify and write letters A – H. However, they are generally expected to recite the English alphabet that is A – Z.
iii. Nursery – (3 to 4 year old): Read and write small and capital letters and relate to them to given objects, e.g. A for Apple; B for Ball, etc.
iv. Primary School – (5 to 10 years): The pupils graduate with the First School Leaving Certificate. They are expected to have mastered the art of reading (comprehension), writing (composition), listening and speaking. Many private schools also expose the pupils to some form of training in what they term „Diction‟.
v. Junior Secondary School (Upper Basic School 7 -9): The students usually come into this stage at ages 9 to 11. Most students at this level are expected to communicate with little or no inhibitions. The examination at this point e.g. the Junior Secondary Certificate Examination (JSCE) conducted by the National Examination Council (NECO) aid the assessment of students.
vi. Senior Secondary School ( 13/14 to 15/16 years): The level of competence at this level is expected to be a little more advanced. This is primarily due to the fact that students are exposed to higher levels of usage of English. Besides, unlike the limited level of lessons in Literature –in – English at the junior secondary school level, those in the Arts now study more sophisticated literary texts which further deepen their knowledge of the language. The various examinations undertaken at this stage also make the assessment of competence much easier. The major exams include the Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE); the University Matriculation Examination (UTME); the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) etc.
vii. Tertiary education – college of education, polytechnics and universities: The students at this level are expected to have acquired adequate knowledge of English to enable them function effectively anywhere in the English speaking world. These are the set of people who end up writing English language assessment tests such as International English Language Testing System (IELTS) and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).
2. The Informal Approach
Unlike the formal approach which is characteristically designed for children, the informal approach usually involves adults who are compelled to learn a foreign language for various reasons. Some learn the second language for the purpose of work, immigration, relocation etc. According to Omoniyi (2004: 106), „the learning environment in the
the radio or television which are very effective audio-visual aids in second learning situations‟.
3.3 Communicative Competence in Second Language Learning
From the points considered in the preceding sections, it is quite clear that there are varying levels of users of ESL. First, there is the fact that not everyone gets to the peak of their educational attainment so invariably one‟s level of education sometimes determines one‟s level of competence. Moreover, it is often difficult to assess the competence of those who learn the language informally. Communicative competence can be defined as
„the ability to use the L 2 accurately, appropriately, and flexibly‟. Hymes (1972) conceives communicative competence as not just a mastery of grammatical or structural rules but also the ability to apply extra-linguistics elements in the use of the language.
Yule (1996:197) identifies the different levels of competence often displayed by second language learners.
i. Grammatical competence
This is also known to as Linguistic competence. It generally refers to the use of grammar or the linguistic structure of the target language. Many learners encounter difficulty as they constantly attempt to relate the grammar of L1 with that of L2 thereby resulting in what was discussed earlier in the section on Interlanguage. However, grammatical competence alone does not make for effective communication. Yule (1996:197) notes that it does not „provide the learner with the ability to interpret or produce language appropriately.‟ As it was proven in the arguments against Noam Chomsky‟s Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG), a sentence may be grammatically appropriate but altogether meaningless and therefore communicate nothing. In the ESL context, undue emphasis on grammatical competence has been linked to the form
„bookish‟ English reportedly spoken by some set of ESL users.
ii. Sociolinguistic Competence
The learner who has attained this level of competence is not only able to use grammar appropriately but also pays attention the socio-cultural nuances of the language. Thus, rather than churning out a string of grammatical sentences without any relevance to the situation on hand, a learner with this competence communicates effectively.
iii. Strategic Competence
This is the ability to communicate messages and or ideas appropriately while deploying some strategic cues to overcome any difficulties that may arise in the course of interactions. This can come in the form of compensating for L1 words whose equivalent in L2 are either unknown to the speaker or non-existent in the language. Those who exhibit this strategy rely on the flexibility that the usage of the L2 permits.
Self Assessment Exercise
i. State some cause and manifestation of interlanguage.
ii. What are the two approaches for the acquisition of ESL?
iii. Mention the various types of competence.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The acquisition of ESL, it has been shown, has much to do with the educational system.
The effectiveness of the educational system determines the success of the learners to considerable extent. However, though often lacking the assessment features prevalent in formal mode, the informal approach to acquiring ESL is largely unaccounted for. Overall, it important to note that what is central any learning or acquisition process is the ability of the learner to communicate effectively.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, the various issues surrounding the acquisition and learning of a second language and ESL in particular have been discussed. The concept of interlanguage holds that learners transfer components of L1 to L2 thus resulting in errors in the target language. Two approaches to ESL learning were also considered: the formal approach lays strong emphasis on the role of the educational system while the informal approach emphasizes interaction. Of course, learning a language invariably brings up the issue of competence and it is stated here that communicative competence should be the goal of any acquisition or learning strategies.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT i. Explain the concept of Interlanguage.
ii. State the differences between the formal and informal approaches to the learning or acquisition of ESL.
iii. What do you understand by communicative competence?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
i. Corder, S.P. (1967) „The significance of Learners‟ errors‟. International Review of Applied Linguistics 5: 161-70
ii. Hymes, D. H. (1972) „On communicative competence‟ in J. B. Pride and J. Holmes eds. Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings. Harmonds-worth, English: Penguin Books