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time for reading, only 21 per cent of students buy novels to read for knowledge and pleasure.
Adeniji‟s (2010) investigation shows that some primary school pupils find it difficult to read and understand despite the fact that reading is indispensable. According to the scholar, some pupils exhibit care free attitude towards reading. Oyetunde and Unoh (1986) cited in Adeniji (2010) list impediments such as lack of materials, poor preparation of teachers, lack of interest, poor library or lack of library, home background and lack of adult readers as models to reading among Nigerian students.
Chukwuemeka (1998) cited in Jegede (2010) attributes failure to read to people‟s attitude towards book. To him, Nigeria does not have a reading culture since our ancestors had oral tradition. The author posits that a change from oral to book culture would require a process of sustained conditioning to open up the consciousness to appreciate the indispensability of book lovers.
The views and findings of various scholars in relation to students‟ attitude towards reading revealed that there is general poor reading habit among Nigerian students while their disposition to watching video and browsing is high which could be attributed to relaxation, fun and interactivity inherent in them. It is therefore incumbent on stakeholders to incorporate teaching strategies that will allow for learning in a relaxed atmosphere with element of fun and interactivity. These types of strategies could incorporate amongst others the use of computer-based self-learning instructional puzzles for instruction.
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social studies classroom based on the use of computer-based puzzles with the view of enhancing learning outcomes and retention.
Studies have also revealed the unwillingness of students to read coupled with their attachment to social media and electronic devices particularly, computer related devices.
Therefore, there is the need to develop instructional strategies that will go along with what students like doing so as to facilitate effective learning as examined in this study.
Scholars have researched into the effects of cognitive style and gender on learning outcomes but the results have always differed thereby making the examination of their effects on learning outcomes based on different learning strategies relevant. So also, while studies have been conducted on field dependent/independent cognitive style, attention has not been given to field neutral learners which this study incorporated. The presence of technological gender gap has also been ascertained thereby calling for the examination of the likely effects on students learning outcomes and retention based on the use of technologically based instructional strategy in social studies classroom.
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METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design
The study was in two phases. The first was the design and development of computer-based self-learning instructional package while the second involved the determination of the effects of the computer-based self-learning instructional puzzles on students‟ learning outcomes and retention in social studies. This phase adopted pretest-posttest, quasi experimental delayed-test design
Phase One
The first phase involved the design and development of computer-based self-learning instructional puzzles in a bid to enhance students‟ attitude, achievement and retention in social studies premised on their commitment to computer-related devices.
Development of the Computer-based Self-learning Instructional Puzzles
The design and development of the package was guided by the Computer-based Self-learning Instructional Package Model designed for the study. The computer-based self-Self-learning instructional puzzle addresses three themes in the social studies curriculum for JS II. The themes are science, technology and society as well as storage and national economy. The themes were subdivided into four modules in the package based on the objectives and content stipulated under each of the themes. The development of the package was based on the following stages.
Stage I: Objective
This looks into the expected performance objectives based on each of the themes incorporated in the package. The objectives derived from the curriculum were incorporated into the objective menu of the package. The incorporation was aimed at ensuring that the learners are focused in the process of interacting with the package. The learners were informed to click on the objective menu and read the information provided to be aware of the expected behaviour after working on the package.
Stage II: Content
This focuses on the information to be disseminated to the learners towards the achievement of the stipulated objectives. The content is derived from the curriculum and recommended textbooks for the subject. The researcher also sought more information through the internet in order to enrich the content. Relevant pictures that could help in attracting and sustaining the attention of the learners so as to achieve the stipulated objectives were incorporated.
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Each of the modules has content menu which students are to click and read the information provided before solving the puzzle. The content of each module was also structured in question format for the students to respond to when solving the puzzle.
Stage III: Relative Advantage
This has to do with the envisaged instructional benefits of the package over the conventional mode of instruction, the dominant method of instruction in social studies classroom.
The package is expected to induce active learning thereby making the learners responsible for their learning. It is also expected to address the problem of boredom associated with the conventional method based on the fact that the puzzles entail elements of fun and interactivity.
The package is imbued with formative evaluation and reinforcement. The learner is applauded electronically for giving correct response to each question in the puzzle and is able to move to the next item. Hint menu is also provided to guide the students towards the correct response when unable to solve a question at first attempt. Solution menu is also provided for students to check the answer when unable to solve a question after the second attempt. This provision aimed at preventing frustration that could be associated with the conventional method where the students have to wait for response from the teacher when unable to solve a problem while such response may not come immediately thereby leading to frustration.
The electronic nature of the package also reflects the drive to induce learning through what the students like doing in terms of their attachment to social media and computer related devices.
Stage IV: Develop Prototype
The prototype was developed in three stages:
Stage1: The prototype at this stage contained the instruction on how to work on the package, the behavioural objectives and the puzzle tasks. There was no separate content aside from the one incorporated in the puzzle in question format. This prototype was trial-tested, the students exposed to it found it difficult to solve. The students suggested the need to have prior knowledge of the content before their exposure to solving the puzzle. The same prototype was shown to three lecturers in educational technology who raised questions concerning the essence of the package in relation to whether it is for enrichment, tutorial or direct teaching, the need for separate content menu to familiarise the students with the content before solving the puzzle was recommended since the package is a self-learning instructional package.
Stage 2: The content menu was incorporated into the puzzle based on information from the recommended textbooks on the subject. The content was presented in the form of normal note given to students in conventional teaching strategy. The prototype was shown to the subject teacher and trial tested again. The students were able to solve the puzzle better than those that
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worked on the package before the incorporation of the separate content menu. However, the boredom associated with the conventional method of instruction in terms of dependency on note given was observed. The same prototype was shown to lecturers in educational technology who raised the need to fine-tune the content in a way that will be interactive and interesting coupled with relevant pictures.
Stage 3: The content of the package was modified and relevant pictures were incorporated into it before it was trial tested. The students that worked on it found it interesting to read the content and work on the package. The package was given to two social studies teachers for comments and they asserted the appropriateness of the package in terms the presentation of the content, usage of language and ease of navigation.
The package was further shown to three social studies teachers in different schools to ascertain the content accuracy, appropriateness of the language used, sequence of the information provided and give relevant suggestions. The prototype was also given to lecturers in educational technology and computer science for observations and suggestions before the final package was produced.
Stage V: Entry Behaviour
This refers to the previous knowledge of the students that could assist in effective utilisation of the package. A learner that will work on it should be able to boot a computer system, drag and type letters on a computer, handle the mouse and use it in navigating on a computer system.
These requirements accounted for the choice of JS II students for the study based on the fact that computer studies is an aspect of the school curriculum at upper basic level and therefore, could have been exposed to theoretical and some practical aspects of computer for a session at JS I. However, the researcher also designed and administered a computer literacy questionnaire to the participants to assess their level of computer literacy and therefore determine their training requirements for effective interaction with the package.
Stage VI: Instructional Environment
This has to do with the availability of necessary infrastructural and social amenities for effective utilisation of the package. Since the package is an electronic one, there must be provision for power supply and functional computer laboratory for its utilisation. These accounted for the stipulation of availability of power supply and functional computer laboratory in schools used for the study.
Stage VII: Trial-test: This stage entails the validation and trial testing of the computer-based self-learning instructional package through the following steps.
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a. Subject content validation: The draft of the content on the selected topics was given to three social studies teachers to assess the adequacy of the content and the depth of coverage as required in the curriculum for the subject, appropriateness in terms of sequencing and use of language. Observations and corrections made by the teachers were incorporated before transforming it into computer-based package.
b. Computer expert validation: The prototype of the package was given to two computer experts to go through to express their opinion in terms of typography, legibility and navigation of the instructional package. Their suggestions were also taken into consideration in the production of the final package.
c. Educational technology expert validation: The first prototype was without separate content aside what was incorporated in the real puzzle aspect of the package. The prototype was shown to three lecturers in educational technology to ascertain conformity with the acceptable standard in educational technology in terms of; simplicity, unity, emphasis, ease of navigation, appropriateness of the pictures and colours used in the package. The need for separate content page was suggested. The prototype was moderated based on suggestions and re-presented. The need to incorporate relevant pictures that could facilitate learning and sustain students‟ interest was also raised. Their recommendation was effected and the prototype was further presented to them. Their appraisal of the prototype was satisfactory before the final package was developed.
(d) One-to-one validation: This entails exposing students to work on the package on individual bases in the presence of the researcher. This validation was carried out in steps.
Step I: The first step was the trial-testing of the first prototype which was the prototype without separate content aside what was incorporated in the real puzzle aspect of the package.
Five students were selected from a school not slated for the main study and exposed to the the package. The students found it difficult to solve the puzzle while the need for separate content menu was raised by the students.
Step II: The second stage was carried out after the provision for separate content menu in the package as a result of the first trial-testing. Another set of five students was selected to work on the package. The students read the content before working on the puzzle. None of them was able to complete all the questions within the stipulated time of 25 minutes on their first trial, but were all positively disposed to the use of the package. The same students were again exposed to the package and three of them were able to finish within the stipulated time. Premised on this, the time stipulated for working on the package was increased to 30 minutes based on suggestion from the students.
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(e) Small group validation: This stage involves exposing a group of students who shared the same characteristics with the target group but were not included in the main study to work on the package for a period of two weeks. This was also carried out in steps.
Step I: Ten students were randomly selected from a school not part of the main study to work on the package for two weeks under the supervision of the researcher. The students were able to work on the package satisfactorily.
Step II: In order to evaluate the package in terms of: functionality and navigation, content and graphic, usability and interest towards the usage, 25 students were randomly selected from two schools made up of private and public schools that were not used for the main study to work on the package for two weeks. The students and the teachers were trained on how to use the package after which the students were allowed to work on it under the supervision of the teacher while the researcher observed them. The Instructional Package Evaluation Questionnaire (IPEQ) was administered to them at the end of the two weeks to determine the appropriateness of the package in terms of; functionality and navigation, content and graphic, and usability.
Stage VIII: Develop Final Product
The final product was developed based on suggestions by educational technologists, social studies teachers at JS level, students on which it was trial-tested and problems identified in the process of the trial-test. The final product contains menu for introduction to the package, instruction on how to work on the package, performance objectives, content, the puzzle, hint and solution as explained below
(i) The introduction menu: This introduces the learner to the package. It states the topic in a package, duration of the lesson and instructs the learner to read the objectives for the lesson and content before working on the puzzle. The essence of this menu is to give the learner a mindset and prepare him/her for the task ahead.
(ii) The objective menu: This contains the behavioural objectives for the lesson as stated in the curriculum. The essence of this menu is to motivate the learner and focus his/her attention on expectations from him/her after interacting with the package
(iii) The instruction menu: This gives specific information on how to work on the package in relation to the filling of the grids, ascertaining the correctness of the learner‟s response to each of the items on the puzzle and searching for clue to correct response. The incorporation of this will enhance the usability of the package since it is a self-learning instructional package.
(iv) The content menu: This deals with the subject matter of the topic. It contains all the necessary information the learner is expected to acquire based on the behavioural
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objectives of the lesson. Knowledge of the content will allow the learner to effectively solve the puzzle since he/she is expected to recall the information acquired in this menu while working on the puzzle.
(v) The puzzle menu: This is where the puzzle to be filled is displayed, it is a word puzzle and the grids are to be filled based on the correct answer to each of the questions raised.
Each learner is expected to recall the information under the content in order to fill the grids.
(vi) The hint menu: This contains clue to the correct response to each question in each of the puzzles. The learner is expected to click on the hint menu when he/she cannot respond correctly to any of the questions in a puzzle to have an idea of the answer. However, a student is expected to click on the hint menu a second time if the correct response is not given after a second trial in the first puzzle for the display of the answer. The hint menu prevents the learners from been frustrated when unable to solve any of the questions while working on the puzzle.
(vii) The solution menu: This contains a complete solution to the puzzle. The learner is expected to click on the solution menu when unable to solve a question after checking the hint for the display of solution to the question. It also prevents frustration which could arise when unable to solve any of the questions. The learner is allowed to check the solution except in the first puzzle where the solution will be displayed at the expiration of the 30 minutes slated for the completion of the puzzle.
Stage IX: Evaluation
This is a common element in all the three models integrated for the development of the package. It deals with assessing the package and its effectiveness. The evaluation of the package started from the production of the prototype up to the point of trial-test. Suggestions and recommendations made by students, teachers and educational technologists were taken into consideration in producing the final package. However, the summative evaluation aimed at assessing the effects of the package on students‟ learning outcomes and retention was based on post-test and delayed–test conducted after the utilisation of the package by the participants.
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Table 3.1: SUMMARY OF THE ACTIVITIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PUZZLES
STAGE ELEMENT ACTIVITY REASON
I. Objective Statement of the behavioural objectives for each topic in the package.
To secure the attention of the learners and motivate them to learn.
II. Content Presentation of the content of each topic in the package.
To familiarise the learners with the required information based on the stated objectives for each topic.
III. Relative advantage Provision of hint menu, inbuilt formative evaluation and immediate knowledge of result.
To prevent frustration and enhance self-learning.
IV. Develop prototype 1st - Prototype without separate content.
2nd - Prototype with separate content menu but without graphic.
3rd – Prototype with separate content menu and relevant graphic.
Inability to solve the first prototype due to lack of adequate information on the topic. Assumptions by students that the 1st prototype was like quiz led to the 2nd prototype.
Suggestions from students, social studies teachers and educational technologists led to the development of the 3rd prototype.
V. Entry behaviour Selection of JS II and exposure of learners to computer literacy test.
JS II was selected because they would have been exposed to practical aspect of computer studies in JS I. The students‟ response to the computer questionnaire helped in determining the training requirement of the participants.
VI. Instructional environment
Selection of schools with functional computer laboratory and power supply.
The package is computer based.
VII. Test-trial This was done in series.
Serial I: Prototype without content.
Serial II: Testing of prototype with content on 5 selected students twice.
Serial III: Testing of the 3rd prototype after necessary adjustments have been made based on the earlier trials.
To make the package relevant for effective learning.
VIII. Development of final product.
The final product contains:
- Introduction menu - Objective menu - Instruction menu - Content menu - Puzzle menu - Hint menu - Solution menu
The information provided here is to enhance the usability and self-learning ability of the package.
IX. Evaluation This entails assessing the relevance of the package in terms of students‟ attitude, achievement and retention.
To assess the relevance of the package in learning.