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2.2. The Concept of Social Inequality
The subject of social inequality is dynamic and has been discussed in different fields of studies. These include Philosophy, Sociology and Biology. One view holds that the phenomenon of inequality is a theory which centres around the idea of an equal distribution of goods that are considered socially valuable, but focuses on deviations from this principle in the form of social inequalities43. According to this theory, social inequalities consist of socially generated and stable restrictions on social groups to the access of desirable goods and life chances which are accepted in the society. From the above given definition, we can say that social inequality is in two broad categories namely; natural inequality and socially created inequalities. For the purpose of this study, social inequality can be defined as the prejudices and exclusions suffered by persons in any given society. These exclusions may include access to desirable goods of the society or denial of the right of individuals. Social inequality was a subject of major concern in
43 E. Cyba. 2005. Social Inequality and Gender. Retrieved July, 12,2008, from http/www.jsse.org/2005-2inequality-cyba.htm
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the Old Testament. According to Kohlenberger, J.R,44 one of the social concerns of the covenant in Israel is that no one, however disabled, impoverished or powerless, ought be oppressed or exploited. This theme is expressed both in the concern for the poor in the prophetic literature and in the legal codes. It is also shown in the concern for the neighbour. Israel as an alternative covenant community must be radically different from the great empires of the day which are highly exploitative and oppressive. Coorilos observes that the Monarchy in Israel brought major social and economic inequalities in the society of Israel which Deuteronomy addresses.
The sociological and philosophical meaning of the concept of social inequality was examined in the works of J. Jacques Rousseau45, Plato46, and K. Marx Webster47. In the view of J. Rousseau two forms of social inequality namely natural (Biological) inequality and moral or political inequality exist. The latter refers to inequality which arises from social conventions. This means social situation or circumstances in which some people are worse off than others through no fault of their own. In this work emphasis is laid on social inequality arising from human conventions. It means the prejudices, restrictions which a group of people suffer from or are subjected in their community, e.g. the Orphan, the Widow and the Sojourner. Social inequality often leads to denial and lack of access to basic facilities or necessities of life. Contemporary view sees social inequality as referring to the ways in which socially defined categories of persons (according to characteristics such as gender, age, class and ethnicity) are differentially positioned with
44 K.L Barker, J.R Kohlenberger (III). 1994. Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p.
256.
45 J.J. Rousseau. A dissertation on the origin and foundation of the inequality of mankind. Retrieved June, 2, 2011, from http//wwwforhand.edu/Rousseau inequality.
46The New Encyclopedia Britannica in 30 vol.
47 See : O. Otite and W. Ogionwo. 2006. An Introduction to Sociological Studies. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books.
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regard to access to a variety of social goods, such as the labour market and other sources of income, education and health care systems and forms of political representation and participation.
Plato as well as Aristotle in their respective claims argues for equality of persons and access to justice. This position was based on the principle of Formal Equality. When two persons have equal status in at least one norminatively relevant respect, they must be treated equally with regard to this respect. This postulation sterms from Plato‟s philosophy „treat like case as like‟. This argument states that everyone deserved the same dignity and the same respect. The dorminant idea in the argument is that justice demands proportionate equality. Locke who argues in the same vein states all human beings have the same natural right to both (self-) ownership and freedom.48 This corroborates T.Hobbes‟ position who holds that in their natural conditions individuals posses equal rights. These philosophical postulations base equality on the principle of equity and justice. Nevertheless this does not deny inequality is society.
The impact of social inequality in contemporary societies is identified in the correlation between the phenomenon of social inequality and stress related illnesses, crime and violence. In addition, social inequality can impede democratic or political stability and may act as support for the establishment of authoritarian regimes. The opposite of social inequality is Equality. This is itself a highly contested term. It concerns the material requirements and measure of the ideal of equality. It involves such questions as, equality of what, equality among whom? Equality is said to signify correspondence between a group of different objects, persons, processes or circumstances that have the
48 The Stanford Enclopedia of Philosophy definition of the concept of equality.
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same qualities in at least one respect, but not in all respects.49 In the view of G.A. Cohen, equality requires equal opportunity of welfare, for example, in a case of a paralysed person being given a wheelchair independently of the person‟s welfare level.50 This is the principle of moral equality which is understood as prescribing treatment of persons as equals, that is, with equal concern and respect. Some advocates51 of equality think that inequality can only be ended by depriving those who are better off of their resources rendering them as poorly off as everyone else. This is however not the Deuteronomic view of social inequality.
What is penitent about the Deuteronomic advocacy for equity of all is that it has interface with social justice. While social justice aims at righting the wrongs and in the areas of deprivation and violation human rights, Deuteronomic equity advocates for accommodation and toleration of all cases of natural inequality cum social injustice.
The subject of social inequality has its ancient near eastern background. This was investigated in the Egyptian documents which relate that all men are created equal with access to basic necessities of life. The king is portrayed as the champion and protector of the weak in the Egyptian text. This suggests the similarities in thought and theological
49 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy defines the concept of equality and inequality that is relevant to the discussion. Retrieved April, 25, 2009 from http/plato.stanford.edu/entries/equality.
50 The Stanford Encyclopedia, Op. cit. p.37. For more on „equality‟ see, Cohen Gerald A. 1993. Equality of What? On welfare, Goods, and Capabilities, Oxford : Oxford University press, p.9-29.---2000, If you are Egalitarian How come you are so Rich. Cambridge: Harvard University press,---2007, Rescuing Justice and Equality. See: R. Dahrendorf, on „The Origin of social inequality‟ in: Philosophy, Politics, and Society. Oxford: Blackwell.
51 This is Parfit‟s (1997) Priority view which calls for improving the situation of society‟s weaker and poorer members. It also corresponds to the entitlement theory of justice view of Nozick‟s (1974) which holds that the wealth of those better off be transferred for the sake of mitigating the distress of the weaker (See: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
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reflection of the Deuteronomic response to the Ancient Near Eastern culture. According to Maimonides,52
A man ought to be especially mindful of his behaviour towards widows and orphans, for their souls are exceedingly depressed and their spirits low. Even if they are wealthy, even if they are the widow and orphans of a king, we are specifically enjoined concerning them as it is said, „Ye shall not afflict any widow or orphan (Ex. 2821).53
This comment sees the care of the orphan as a religious obligation and social responsibility in society as a response to social inequality. According to VanGemeren, the orphan is overwhelmingly listed along the widow and the alien as a compositional triad and points to the weak and helpless segment of society the ones who are most vulnerable to injury and abuse.54 Social inequality constitutes a major concern of the Deuteronomistic and the Prophetic tradition by the regular call to attention of the marginal groups.
In the text segments ( Deut 14 22-29, 16 9-12,13-18
2417-18, 19-22
and 26 12-15) mention is made repeatedly of the marginal groups (orphans, widows, sojourners, the Levites).
The primary importance therefore lies not in the literary function but in the response which they deserve. The importance of these texts must be sought in the function which they perform in the context of Israel‟s society55 The phrase, „and the Levite because he
52 Maimonides was a Jewish philosopher, physician, and foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism who wrote a commentary on the Mishna, the collected Jewish Oral laws. His name was originally Moses Ben Maimon. (Born 30th March 1135 died 13th Dec.1204 BC)
53 Encyclopedia Judaica p. 1478
54 W.A.VanGemeren. 1997. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. UK:
Paternoster Press. p.570.
55 See: J.H. Hayes. 1968. The usage of oracle against foreign nations in ancient Israel Journal of Biblical Literature (JBL). Lxxxviii. 81. He understands the prophetic oracle from the functions they perform in Israelite society.
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has no portion of inheritance with you and the sojourner; the fatherless and the widows who are within your town’ (Deut 14 29) which occur repeatedly in the text segment depicts the Deuteronomic perspective about the social status of these groups in Israel‟s society. The understanding of the Deuteronomic thought about the social status of the mentioned group must be seen against the background of the social inequality in general and Israel‟s society in particular. Max Weber, who is mostly accepted as the doyen of sociology and other social sciences dealing with modes of inequality, believes that those who are in class position at the top of the apex (of power distribution in society) also hold most power in society. He identifies three dimensions of social inequality namely; class (which correlates with the economy) status (which correlates with the cultural aspects of society) and party (which correlates with the political aspect of society). Israel‟s society of the 7th century already had a classified social structure with the emergence of monarchical system of government with the king representing the party, the merchants the economic class (Amos 41) while retaining the structural functional model which accommodates the role of the elders, Judges, Priests and prophets. In the cultic setting the elders (probably with reference to the priests) lay hands on the sacrifice (Lev 43-12). The functions of the elders were diverse, acting as leaders of communities and as decision makers and as judges. This hierarchical structure is largely similar to what obtains in the Urhobo society.
The selected texts dealing with widows, strangers and orphans which are conventionally viewed as rules meant to aid the plight of the vulnerable persons in ancient Israel has been contested by Harold Bennett 56 who argues that the Deuteronomic
56 H.V. Bennett. Injustice made legal, Deuteronomic laws and the plight of widows, strangers and orphans in Ancient Israel. Retrieved April, 25, 2009. from .http/www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst.
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texts were actually drafted by a powerful elite class to enhance their own material condition and keep the peasantry down. He dates the texts to the ninth century and assigned them to the North. Using critical law theory he believes that the laws were meant to manipulate the peasantry rather than help them. Harold‟s thesis recognizes the relevance of these regulations as addressing the social condition of the marginal group but does not give recognition to the theological ties between the Deuteronomic school and the prophetic tradition in Israel. The relationship between the Deuteronomic theological persuasion and the prophetic tradition compels one to hold the view that they constitute the voice of the voiceless. The programme advocated by the Deuteronomic texts provides a benchmark for social reforms relevant to the phenomenon of social inequality in contemporary times. Recognition is given to men with great natural endowment and skill; i.e. men of great ability in the Old Testament (1Kgs.1128). So also is reference made to very able men for the work of the service of God (1Chron 913 1Chron 268 1Sam 91 ) Sometimes the idea of being great is not used only in the special sense of being a man of great valour in battle but of marked moral or material worth.57 Thus, the references to persons of high positions and their social status in Israel‟s society as well as the marginal groups draw attention to the phenomenon of social inequality and must be understood from both structural functional as well as from the symbolic-interactionist perspective.58
Jean Jacques Rousseau, in his incisive philosophical enquiry into the subject of social inequality and its origins, differentiates between natural „inequality‟ and socially created inequalities. He defines these as natural inequalities or moral and political
57 The concept of being great entails both military prowess and material acquisition by which class is intended.
58 Symbolic Interactionism focuses on how a person is valued by others in the society.
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inequality. While natural inequality is established by nature and refers to the differences in age, health, bodily strength, the inequality of mind and soul, socially created inequality or political inequality consists of the different privileges which some enjoy to the prejudice of others such as that of being more rich, more honoured, more powerful or even in a position to exact obedience. Rousseau ties the phenomenon of inequalitity in human society to ambition. He observes:
Insatiable ambition, the thirst of raising their respective fortunes not so much from real wants as from the desire to surpass others, inspired all men with vile propensity to injure one another and with a secret jealousy which is the more dangerous, as it puts on the mask of benevolence, to carry its points with greater security.59
The response of the Deuteronomist was to address both socially created inequalities and natural inequalities through the process of symbolic interactionism. The theory of social indentity is applicable with the groups who as a result of race differ from Israelite commonwealth. Thus the ger (the sojourner) and the almanah (the widow who through natural occurrences has lost their bread winners) need social support.
E.M. Coorilos60 in his study of neighbourliness in the Book of Deuteronomy draws attention to the understanding of Israel as a covenant community. The Deuteronomic understanding of Israel as a covenant community in the view of Coorilos demands that she expresses preferential option for the less privileged neighbours such as widows, orphans and strangers (Deut. 10.17-18,19 15). Israel as an alternative covenant
59 J. Jacques Rousseau. A dissertation on the origin and foundation of the Inequality of Mankind.
Retrieved. June 2, 2011, from http://www. edu/rousseau-inequality. See: M. Haralambos. Op. cit..p. 27.
60 E.M. Coorilos. Being and Becoming a Neighbour Biblical Reflections. Retrieved Sept., 22, 2008 from http//www.nccusa. Org/poverty/sermon. Coorilos, html.
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community must be radically different from the great empires of the day which are highly exploitative and oppressive. Coorilos observes that the monarchy in Israel brought major social and economic inequalities in the society of Israel which Deuteronomy addresses.
This work though examines the theme of social inequality in the context of Israel‟s neighbourliness as a characteristic of Israel‟s community, Coorilos‟ work, however does not include the attention drawn to the response to the phenomenon of social inequality from the point of view of ancient Israelite traditions which constitute a major concern of the Deuteronomic School.
W. Brueggemann,61 in his work, „Trajectories in the Old Testament’; examines the two predominant traditions in Israel, namely the Mosaic and the Davidic traditions.
Although the two seem continuous, such that the Davidic is derived from the Mosaic, yet there is tension and conflict between both. The Mosaic tradition tends to be a movement of protest which is situated among the disinherited and which articulates its theological vision in terms of a God who decisively intrudes even against seemingly impenetrable institutions and orderings. On the other hand, the Davidic tradition tends to be a movement of consolidation which is situated among the established and which articulates its theological vision in terms of a God who faithfully abides and sustains on behalf of the present ordering. By the present ordering, he means the socio-political realities that have been entrenched by the forces of social inequalities. Each trajectory, according to Brueggemann, reflects important socioeconomic and political concerns. This work is important for this study. Although he examines the traditions and their theological articulations, the response to the social structural anomaly as reflected in the biblical texts
61 W. Brueggeman 1979, „Trajectories in Old Testament Literature and the Sociology of Ancient Israel‟ in Journal of Biblical Literature. June. 98.2: 161-185.
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is not treated. This work is important for this study because the theological philanthropic articulation of the Deuteronomic School can properly be located in the Mosaic tradition.
Imoagene O.,62 in his book, „The Nigerian Class Structure’, argues in support of the emerging class structure in Nigeria. The arguments raised against the existence of classes in African societies in contrast to Europe namely Pluralism, Multiple ranking system, Tribal loyalties and lack of segregation and the phenomenon of corporate political activity were contended by Imoagene in his work. For example, the pattern of interaction between the elite and kinsmen and the non-elite as a result of the communal nature of African society, is said to blur rather than sharpen class divisions. On the contrary, Imoagene argues that an ecological study of any major town in West Africa today stands to show the extent of segregation between the elite and the masses.63 The presence of what was known in colonial days as European Quarters or Reservation Areas justifies this. He also mentions the changing marriage pattern in the Nigeria society as a reflection of class consciousness. For him, there is an emerging class consciousness especially in terms of economic category. Imaogene‟s work highlights the nature of the phenomenon of social inequality in Urhobo as well as what was obtained in Ancient Israel and the need for a biblical response which this study investigates. Rather than the structural functional approach, the perspective of Imaogene‟s work takes the conflict theory which envisages confrontation in the society. He does not however apply the biblical approach as a response.
62 O Imoagene “Ed.” 1989. The Nigerian Class Structure. Ibadan: Evans Brothers (Nigeria Publishers Ltd).
63 Ibid, p. ix.
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