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2.4 GENDER AND ICT
The introduction of information and communication technology (ICT) into the educational sector created new social stereotypes and gender inequalities (Markauskaite, 2006). ICT-related activities have been viewed as a male domain for some time now (Brosnan and Davidson, 1996) or something for boys (Reinen and Plomp, 1996). In the past, a computer was primarily associated with programming and logical scientific thinking in schools. Thus, old stereotypic gender differences in attitudes and achievements that previously existed in mathematics and technological disciplines were extrapolated to the area of ICT. As several research reviews and meta-analyses summarised, boys were more interested in ICT than girls; they were heavier users of computers, had more positive attitudes about computers and consequently outperformed girls in their ICT literacy (Reinen
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and Plomp, 1996; Volman and Eck, 2001). It has become clear in recent years that observations about differences between groups of pupils regarding ICT should differentiate between the types of ICT application (Kay, 1992). Girls answer general questions about ICT attitude, for example, less positively than boys but are enthusiastic about applications like word processing and drawing (Volman and Van Eck, 2001).
There are also differences between males and females concerning how they judge their own computer skills and self–efficacy related to how to perform different ICT-related tasks. Males report being more advanced and more capable of dealing with what are identified as high-level ICT skills (such as downloading new software and programming) compared to women (Broos, 2005, CERI, 2010). Furthermore, males are reported to have wider computer experience, report greater interest in and positive attitudes towards computer-related activities, and even appear to be more motivated about learning digital skills (Broos, 2005; Selwyn, 2007; Smihily, 2007; Arnseth, 2007).
However, when there is evidence to suggest a gender-specific difference in attitudes towards ICT, in which boys reveal more confidence than girls, we do not know at what age this gender-based difference in attitudes starts. Several studies confirm no gender-specific differences in younger students. Some of these main findings are presented below:
No considerable differences in respect of participation, ICT skills and learning between boys and girls in primary education (Volman et al., 2005).
No differences concerning student attitudes, cognition or performance between boys and girls of elementary school age (North and Noyes, 2002; Mey, 2007; Kay, 2008).
Boys are most likely to be well experienced in the use of video games for entertainment purposes at a very early age (Colley 2003). The use of computer games in schools seems to have a positive impact on engagement, and, in particular, on school dropouts, who very often are boys (Kirriemuir, 2004).
There seems to be a slight tendency towards boys displaying a preference for individual learning with ICT, whereas girls are more likely to prefer collaborative learning.
Studies of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL), claim that male dominance and gender differences in communication style continue to play a role even when CMC is characterized by its communicative capacity and, therefore, might be expected to be found more attractive to
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female students. Participation was more gender balanced in educational settings with an explicit focus on inclusiveness in collaboration (Prinsen, 2007).
It is equally believed that young people‘s gendered identities have an impact on future educational and career patterns, particularly in relation to science and technology, the two most crucial areas for knowledge economies (Vekiri, 2008, Geneve, 2009; Hill, 2010). In other words, youngsters‘ ICT preferences and patterns of use are influenced by socialization processes. The risks related to the use of ICT in relation to chat and Internet messaging constitutes an actual example in this case. To deal with it, parents are likely to impose rules on their children‘s usage. And parents‘ approaches to their children‘s use of ICT are gendered in several ways. Firstly, that they appear to lean on stereotyped views of boys‘ and girls‘ use of ICT; for example, by communicating safety and risk-related rules to the girls and rules concerning video games to the boys (Gannon, 2008; Lenhart et al., 2008; Medierådet, 2008).
The ICT sector is male dominated in general and this is also the case in terms of the design of software, games, diverse tools and gadgets according to Geneve, 2009; Prpic, 2009;
and Hill, 2010. Some researchers have claimed that the maleness of design, not only in respect of the outlook, but also in respect of the kind of objects being developed might be one possible explanation on why girls do not feel attracted to this field. As a response to such a claim, several attempts to attract girls were conducted at the beginning of this millennium.
For example, the development of the so-called pink games, which were designed to attract young girls to video games (Kirriemuir, 2004). However, the attempt failed. One explanation was that girls did not identify themselves as being ―pink‖; they just wanted other genres of computer games. Young people consider the Internet to be a highly important arena for socializing (Ito, 2008), but there are distinct gender differences in what boys and girls prefer to do. These differences also include geographical variations to some extent. In the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, research confirms that boys are more likely to show their preference for the practice of posting video clips on the web (Lenhart,2007; Taylor, 2010), and that girls dominate in other multimodal fields, such as weblogs and social networks (Lenhart, 2007; Medierådet, 2008).
However, there are overlaps between these activities as well as among countries. For example, in the UK it has been reported that girls are most likely to post video clips on the Internet (Luckin, 2008), whereas the situation was the opposite in the US (Taylor, 2010). A
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Swedish survey showed that girls were more advanced in their use of mobile phones and the Internet than boys (Medierådet, 2008). Also the production of web-blogs is dominated by young people, and there are gender differences apparent in the content of such blogs, even if the blogging activity itself appears to be even between the genders. Males dominate the political commentary blog category, whereas women are in the majority in the personal diary category (Lenhart, 2007; Storsul et al., 2008).
There is evidence that boys dominate and show their preference for gaming activities, both at home and at school (Arnseth, 2007; OECD, 2007; Smihily, 2007; CERI, 2010). This interest in gaming appears to be most apparent in young boys, and there is a shift of interest as the boys grow older, in terms of a stronger focus on the use of ICT for educational purposes (Kent and Facer, 2004). What is striking is that young girls also appear to have an interest in gaming, not to the same extent as the boys, but they still play (Smihily, 2007;
Aarsand, 2010). When girls do play, they avoid talking about games as ―games‖. Instead they talk about the games by using game titles, like ‗the Sims‘ (Carr, 2005). Both boys and girls consider gaming to be a male activity, with which the girls do not wish to be associated. The use of games in a pedagogical setting improves boys' attitudes and motivation towards education (Kirriemuir, 2004; Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2006). On the other hand, the use of games for school-related purposes does not motivate girls with high marks (Kirriemuir, 2004). As for the educational use of gaming, so far, no clear effect has been established in academic learning (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2006). Still, there is evidence to suggest that games contribute towards improving general skills, such as collaboration skills, perceptual and motor learning, ICT skills and higher order-thinking skills, like problem-solving and strategic thinking (Kirriemuir, 2004). These several claims by researchers on gender and technology need to be further substantiated through research because of conflicting results.
2.5 Adoption and integration of information and communication technology into teaching and learning
Global investment in ICT to improve teaching and learning in schools have been initiated by many governments. Despite all these investments on ICT infrastructure, equipments and professional development to improve education in many countries, ICT adoption and integration in teaching and learning have been limited (Buabeng-Andoh, 2012).
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Rangaswamy and Gupta (2000) describe adoption as the decisions that individuals make each time that they consider taking up an innovation. Similarly, Rogers (2003) defines adoption as the decision of an individual to make use of an innovation as the best course of action available. The process of adoption starts with initial hearing about an innovation to final adoption. Earle (2002) links ICT integration with the concept of wholeness, when all elements of the system are connected together to become a whole. For instance, the two important elements of teaching and learning which are content and pedagogy must be joined when technology is used in lesson. In other words, if students are offered series of websites or ICT tools (such as CD ROMs, multimedia, and so on) then the teacher is not integrating ICT into teaching since he/she is not tackling the pedagogical issues. Williams (2003) describes ICT integration as the means of using any ICT tool (the Internet, e-learning technologies, CD ROMs, and so on) to assist teaching and learning. One of the most valuable benefits of integrating ICT in school practice is that it enhances the possibilities of teaching and learning beyond the traditional limitations of time and space (Tubin et al., 2003). ICTs greatly facilitate the acquisition and absorption of knowledge, offering developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance educational systems, improve policy formulation and execution, and widen the range of opportunities for business and the poor (Tinio, 2002).
Teachers are implored to adopt and integrate ICT into teaching and learning activities, but teachers‘ preparedness to integrate ICT into teaching determines the effectiveness of the technology and not by its sheer existence in the classroom (Jones, 2001).
The attitudes of teachers towards technology greatly influence their adoption and integration of computers into their teaching. Anxiety, lack of confidence and competence and fear often implies that ICT will take a back seat to give room for conventional learning mechanisms (Russell and Bradley, 1997).
To successfully initiate and implement educational technology in school‘s programmes depends strongly on the teachers‘ support and attitudes. It is believed that if teachers perceive technology programmes as neither fulfilling their needs nor their students‘
needs, it is likely that they will not integrate the technology into their teaching and learning.
Among the factors that influence successful integration of ICT into teaching are teachers‘
attitudes and beliefs towards technology (Hew and Brush, 2007; Keengwe and Onchwari, 2008). If teachers‘ attitudes are positive toward the use of educational technology then they
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can easily provide useful insight about the adoption and integration of ICT into teaching and learning processes. Demici (2009) conducted a study on teachers‘ attitudes towards the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in Turkey. The study used a questionnaire to collect data from 79 Geography teachers in 55 different high schools. The study revealed that, although barriers, such as lack of hardware and software existed, teachers positive attitudes towards GIS was an important determinant to the successful integration of GIS into geography lessons. Research has shown that teachers‘ attitudes towards technology influence their acceptance of the usefulness of technology and its integration into teaching (Huang and Liaw, 2005).
Teachers‘ computer experience relates positively to their computer attitudes. The more the experience teachers have with computers, the more likely that they will show positive attitudes towards computers (Rozell and Gardner, 1999). Positive computer attitudes are expected to foster computer integration in the classroom (van Braak et al., 2004). For successful transformation in educational practice, user need to develop positive attitudes toward the innovation (Woodrow, 1992). According to Berner (2003), and Summers (1990) as cited in Bordbar (2010), teachers‘ computer competence is a major predictor of integrating ICT in teaching. Evidence suggests that the majority of teachers who reported negative or neutral attitude towards the integration of ICT into teaching and learning processes lacked knowledge and skills that would allow them to make ―informed decision‖ (Al- Oteawi, 2002;
as cited in Bordbar, 2010).
Access to ICT infrastructure and resources in schools is a necessary condition to the integration of ICT in education (Plomp et al., 2009). Effective adoption and integration of ICT into teaching in schools depends mainly on the availability and accessibility of ICT resources, such as hardware, software, and so on. Obviously, if teachers cannot access ICT resources, then they will not use them. Therefore, access to computers, updated software and hardware are key element to successful adoption and integration of technology. A study by Yildrim (2007) found that access to technological resources is one of the effective ways to teachers‘ pedagogical use of ICT in teaching.
Jones (2004) reported that the breakdown of a computer causes interruptions and if there is lack of technical assistance, then it is likely that the regular repairs of the computer will not be carried out, resulting in teachers not using computers in teaching. The effect is that teachers will be discouraged from using computers because of fear of equipment failure
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since no one would give them technical support in case there is a technical problem. Becta (2004) avers that ―if there is a lack of technical support available in a school, then it is likely that technical maintenance will not be carried out regularly, resulting in a higher risk of technical breakdowns‖. Yilmaz (2011), in his assessment of technology integration processes in the Turkish education system, reported that, in providing schools with hardware and Internet connections, it is also crucial to provide the schools with technical support with regard to repair and maintenance for the continued use of ICT in schools.
Therefore, if there is no technical support for teachers, they become frustrated, resulting in their unwillingness to use ICT (Tong and Trinidad, 2005). A study by Korte and Husing (2007) revealed that schools in Britain and the Netherlands have appreciated the significance of technical support to help teachers to integrate technology into their teaching.ICT support in schools influence teachers to apply ICT in classrooms without wasting time troubleshooting hardware and software problems.
Although infrastructure support is imperative, school technology leadership is a stronger predictor of teachers‘ use of computer technology in teaching (Anderson and Dexter, 2005). Yee (2000) asserts that a leader who implements technology plans and also shares a common vision with the teachers stimulate them to use technology in their lessons.
For effective utilization of ICT by teachers, there is the need for a strong leadership to drive well-designed technology plans in schools (Lai and Pratt, 2004). BECTA reports the effect of ICT on teaching in basic schools in United Kingdom also stresses the significance of good leadership (Lai and Pratt, 2004). In addition BECTA identifies five factors that should be present in schools if ICT is to be utilized properly. These factors were ICT resources, ICT teaching, ICT leadership, general teaching and general school leadership (Lai and Pratt, 2004).
The most important aspect of a good early childhood programme is its teachers, as classroom practices are influenced by teachers‘ beliefs. In other words, if teachers appreciate the role of computer technology in developing children‘s learning, they will be more likely to integrate technology into their early childhood programmes, and vice versa Hsiac (2003). In the view of Foote et al. (2004), ―What teachers do is likely to be an outcome of their beliefs and knowledge about what is appropriate literacy for children in an early context‖. In a complex society like Nigeria, many factors affect ICT use and integration. So, an interdisciplinary and integrated approach is very necessary to ensure the successful
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development of Nigeria‘s economy and society (Mac-Ikemenjima, 2005). Positive teacher attitude is essential for successful implementation of the newly-introduced guidelines for technology integration in Nigeria (Ogiegbaen 2006). Pelgrum (2001) adds to this discussion knowledge from a worldwide survey of schools from 26 countries. He argues that among the main factors inhibiting the incorporation of technology in teaching and learning is the lack of knowledge among teachers.
2.6 Teacher perceptions of ICT in teaching and learning
A number of research initiatives which focused on teachers‘ and instructors‘
perceptions of technology use in education have been carried out recently. Research carried out in the United States by Brill and Galloway (2007) to examine lecturers‘ use of instructional technology and their perceptions of such technology found that instructors perceived technology to have had beneficial impacts on the instructional setting. He claims instructional technology facilitates the clear and elaborate presentation of information to students; enables the showing of numerous and complex examples; enhances the engagement/attention of students; encourages student-student and student-instructor interaction; and provides structure and support to the in-classroom experience. Instructors also discussed barriers to their use of instructional technology. These consisted of incompatible classroom environments and insufficient equipment to cater for needs of instructors.
Levin and Wadmany (2006) research into teacher beliefs and how they affect teacher practice within a technology-rich classroom environment has also added valuable knowledge to this area. They carried out a qualitative study of teachers within a school in central Israel that had recently implemented major changes in order to have technology-based teaching and learning. They found that teachers‘ beliefs regarding teaching and learning changed over three years within a technology-rich environment, and these changes manifested in modified classroom behaviour. They also found that as teachers‘ beliefs changed, so did their perceptions of how technology fit into the process of teaching and learning. For instance, the teacher belief that education was for the purpose of transmitting knowledge to passive learners in order to fulfil curriculum and policy requirements corresponded with views of technology merely as a support to that process. On the other hand, as this belief changed to a
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more constructivist orientation, teachers became more reflective of how technology could be used to enhance student engagement in the learning culture.
Furthermore, Levin and Wadmany (2006) point out that teachers react in varied ways to new ideas regarding the use of ICTs in teaching and learning, and may hold multiple views at once, which can and do change under the right circumstances. For some teachers in the study, their beliefs changed from a behaviourist orientation to a constructivist orientation.
There were many supporting factors that may have made the difference in the development of teacher beliefs. The environment was already well equipped with the necessary technology in adequate quantities. In addition, the school developed a professional development strategy including mentoring of teachers; requisite support materials were provided; demonstrations of learning activities and research tools were carried out for teachers, and university personnel with expertise in educational technology and subject areas were available to mentor and assist teachers in implementing the reform (Levin and Wadmany, 2006). The above findings should be considered in conjunction with the support factors listed above, as evident in Levin and Wadmany‘s research (2006).
The theme of ‗change in teacher beliefs‘ highlighted by Levin and Wadmany (2006) is also apparent in a study by Hennessy, Ruthven and Brindley (2005) of subject faculties of four English secondary schools with average access to technologies compared to national levels. The study aimed to find out how English teachers in secondary schools went about the process of integrating information and communications technologies in education. Although the research concentrated on English teachers‘ perspectives, it also included findings on the perspectives of Mathematics and Science teachers. The research found that teachers were generally committed to using ICT in the classroom although this was tempered by structural constraints, such as the availability of ICTs, as well as curriculum pressures embodied in examinations for which they had to prepare their students, as well as assessment regulations.
Secondly, ―while there was a feeling of inevitability and acceptance of the role of technology, the teachers simultaneously portrayed a reflective and critical outlook‖. That is, they expressed caution regarding the use of technology, in terms of undiscerning use, the need to keep learning goals uppermost, and the possible repercussions for subject cultures.
An equally significant finding from the study was that the theme of ‗change‘ was highlighted in teachers‘ discussions. Teachers were reflective of the changing context of teaching and learning and were responding with changes in pedagogy and thinking. They study concluded
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that English, Mathematics and Science teachers reflected on the place of technology in their subject areas, and were tried out new ways of teaching and learning that included technology.
Henessy et al. (2005) recommended that teacher involvement should be at the centre of technology integration in teaching and learning rather than the technology itself.
Albirini (2004) provided a developing country‘s perspective in his study of Syrian teacher attitudes toward ICT. He argues that, while teachers have mostly positive attitudes regarding the integration of technology in schools, merely providing schools with technology will not achieve the changes mandated by government policy. He maintained that policy makers must be cognizant of the fact that educational reform will only happen if teachers have positive attitudes towards such a process. He implies that plans for the integration of ICTs in schools should take into account teacher perspectives regarding such reform. The present study would be interested to find out teachers perceptions of ICT in teaching and learning.
2.7 The computer and young children
The role of the computer within the learning environment concerns the way in which it is used in the teaching and learning processes. The computer may assist the teacher in instructing pupils, aiding pupils learning or being a tool to complete tasks. According to Bingimlas (2009), the use of computer in the classroom is very important for providing opportunities for students to learn to operate in an information age. Yelland (2001) argues that traditional educational environments do not seem to be suitable for preparing learners to function or be productive in the workplaces of today‘s society. Organisations that do not incorporate the use of new technologies in schools cannot seriously claim to seriously prepare their students for life in the twenty-first century. Grimus (2000) also asserts that by teaching ICT skills in primary schools, the pupils are prepared to face future developments based on proper understanding, which offers unique intellectual experiences and opportunities for young children.
Similarly, Bransford et al. (2000) aver that what is now known about learning provides important guidelines for uses of technology that can help students and teachers develop the competencies needed for the twenty-first century. Several researchers and theorist stress that the use of computers can help students to become knowledgeable, reduce the amount of direct instruction given to them, and give teachers an opportunity to help those
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students with particular needs (Iding et al., 2002; Shamatha et al., 2004; Romeo, 2006).
Some schools have computer technology, with the ratio of computers to students changing from 1:125 in 1984 and 1:22 in 1990 to 1:10 in 1997 (Clements and Nastasi, 1993; Coley et al., 1997).
However, schools having computers does not mean children use computers. In one study, just 9% of fourth graders (they did not collect data on younger children) said they used a computer for schoolwork almost every day; 60% said they never used one. A study of preschool and kindergarten classrooms indicated low use by most teachers (Cuban, 2001).
Nevertheless, there seems to be an increasing potential for children to use computers in early childhood settings.
An old concern is that children must reach the stage of concrete operations before they are ready to work with computers. Research, however, has found that preschoolers are more competent than has been thought and can, under certain conditions, exhibit thinking traditionally considered ‗concrete‘ (Gelman and Baillargeon, 1983). Research also shows that even young pre-operational children can use appropriate computer programs (Clements and Nastasi, 1992). A related concern is that computer use demands symbolic competence; that is, computers are not concrete. However, this ignores the fact that much of the activity in which young children engage is symbolic. They communicate with gestures and language, and they employ symbols in their play, song, and art (Sheingold, 1986). What is ‗concrete‘
to the child may have more to do with what is meaningful and manipulative than with physical characteristics. One study compared a computer graphic felt board environment, in which children could freely construct ‗bean stick pictures‘ by selecting and arranging beans, sticks, and number symbols, to a real bean stick environment (Char, 1989). The computer environment actually offered equal, and sometimes greater, control and flexibility to young children. Both environments were worthwhile, but one did not need to precede the other.
Other studies show that computers enrich experience with regular manipulatives. Third-grade students who used both manipulatives and computer programs, or software, demonstrated a greater sophistication in classification and logical thinking, and showed more foresight and deliberation in classification, than did students who used only manipulatives (Olson, 1988).
Some scholars argue that brain research indicates that children should not use computers (Healy, 1998). One could disagree with the interpretations of the research and its ramifications, but few neuroscientists believe that direct educational implications can be
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drawn from their field (Bruer, 1997; Cuban, 2001) – the implications are unwarranted and probably spurious.
Finally, recent reports bring up the old issue of ‗rushing‘ children. However, computers are no more dangerous than many of the other materials we use with young children, from pencils to books to tools; one can push a child to read or engage in other activities inappropriately early. They can all also be used to provide developmentally appropriate experiences. The construct of ‗developmental appropriateness‘ continues to be refined. Following the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), we define it as follows: developmentally appropriate means challenging but attainable for most children of a given age range, flexible enough to respond to inevitable individual variation, and, most important, consistent with children‘s ways of thinking and learning (Clements et al., 1992). Therefore, the question is not if computers are ‗concrete,‘ but whether they provide experiences that facilitate children‘s learning. Criticism (or proselytizing) not grounded in practice is unreliable. Researchers and theorists asserts that the use of computers can help learners to become knowledgeable, reduce the amount of direct instruction given to them, and give teachers an opportunity to help those students with particular needs (Iding et al., 2002; Shamatha et al., 2004; Romeo 2006). Base on the above findings scholars are still continuing to show interest in finding the correlation between young children and ICT acquisition.
2.8 Problems and prospects of ICT in education
The use of ICT in the classroom is very important for providing opportunities for students to learn to operate in an information age; it offers many means of improving teaching and learning (Lefebvre et al., 2006). The problems and progress of ICT in Education may assist educators to become successful technology adopters in the future.
Owing to ICT‘s importance in society and possibly in the future of education, identifying the possible problems to the integration of these technologies in schools would be an important step in improving the quality of teaching and learning. Balanskat et al. (2006), argue that although educators appear to acknowledge the values of ICT in schools, difficulties continue to be encountered during the process of adopting these technologies. There are teacher-level and school-level constraints to ICT in educational programmes. Teacher-level constraints, inlude lack of time, lack of confidence and resistance to change; and so on while school-level
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constraints include lack of effective training in solving technical problems and lack of resources among others. Another view presents the problems as pertaining to two kinds of conditions: material and non-materials (Pelgrum, 2001). The material conditions may be insufficient number of computers or copies of software. The non-materials includes teachers‘ insufficient ICT knowledge and skills, the difficulty of integrating ICT in instruction, and insufficient teacher time.
Akinyemi (1998) asserts that there are numerous problems associated with using ICT in education in Nigeria. The problems are grouped into three sub-headings: finance, personnel and infrastructure. According to Abimbade (1997), the problems of using ICT in Nigerian schools include environmental, power, human resources, technological base, curriculum, pedagogy, finance and the like. It is also observed that power supply is another infrastructural problem; electricity failure has been a persistent problem militating against ICT application and use in Nigeria (Adomi et al., 2003; Adomi et al., 2004; Adomi, 2005).
There is also the issue of the personnel to operate the systems and software developers.
More people are also needed as operation managers, data analysts computer engineers and technicians. (Akinyemi, 1988; Abimbade, 1997). Finance is also one of the major problems of computer education in Nigeria. If all the stakeholders in education in Nigeria could allocate huge amount of money for computer education, computer education in Nigeria will get a boost.
Studies have shown that one‘s culture influences one‘s perception and learning. Most ICT software materials produced overseas are end products of research findings geared to solving specific problems in their country of origin. A major criticism leveled against these software materials is the unrelatedness of the educational materials sold to the Nigerian environment. In most cases examples and illustrations used have no relevance to the experience of the Nigerian children (Gana, 1982, cited in Wodi, 2009). As regards ICT software materials, Gana (1982) also provides reasons why they are considered ―unsuitable for Nigeria. Some of the reasons are the sophistication in construction and operations of most of the equipment, the absence of adequately trained staff for maintenance and repair and the none – availability of spare parts for the different types of ICT equipment. Other problems identified by Dike (1994) include the problem of compatibility and standardization of equipment sold by different manufacturers. Finally, there is the problem of reliance on electricity as the major source of power for most of the ICT equipment with little regard to