UNIT 1 DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY (DAT)
3.2 Propositions of the Differential Association Theory
Sutherland (1947, pp.6-7) outlines nine propositions that describe the process by which an individual engages in criminal behaviour.
i. Criminal behavior is learned.
ii. Criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.
iii. The principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups.
iv. When criminal behaviour is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques
of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated,
sometimes simple; (b) the specific direction of motives, desires,
rationalizations and attitudes.
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v. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definition of legal codes as favourable or unfavorable.
vi. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favourable to violation of law over definitions unfavourable to violation of law.
vii. Differential association may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
viii. The process of learning criminal behaviour by association with criminal and anticriminal patterns involve all of the mechanisms that are involves in any other learning.
ix. While criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, since non-criminal behaviour is an expression of the same needs and values.
As can be seen from his nine propositions, Sutherland argued that criminal behaviour is not inherited at birth or invented by an individual but learned through interpersonal communication, which involves gestures as well as verbal interactions. He obviously did not recognize the role of the media in influencing criminal behaviour as he emphasized the role of the of intimate personal groups such as families. His argument is perhaps based on the fact that the family is a primary agent of socialization.
Furthermore, the learning includes simple and complex criminal skills, which are
associated with clear-cut motives, drives, rationalization and attitudes. These are
designed to prepare the individual for a potential criminal operation. The way legal
codes are defined will determine the specific direction of the motives and drives of
the individuals. An Individual who is surrounded by people who believe that laws
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are meant to be obeyed, is likely to be law abiding. However, an individual that is surrounded by people who have no regards for the law, will be lawless. But, in a society such as ours where some people are law abiding and others are not creates some kind of cultural conflict. According to Sutherland, the implication of this kind of scenario is that individuals who often come in contact with those who violate the law than those who obey the law, will end up becoming criminals.
Frequency, duration, priority and intensity will influence association with criminal behaviour and association with anti-criminal behaviour. For Sutherland, the same process involved in learning non-criminal behaviour is involved in learning criminal behaviour. Finally, he opined that criminal behaviour cannot be explained by a person‟s needs or desires since for example, thieves steal to secure money, as honest people work to secure money.
3.3 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Differential Association Theory
Since its formulation, differential association has remained one of the dominant theories of crime. Some studies have been conducted to determine whether individuals associate with delinquents or criminal others. While it is possible for an individual to learn definitions favourable to crime from persons who are law-abiding, it is most probable that such definitions would be learnt from delinquent friends or criminal family members (Cullen, Agnew & Wilcox, 2014).
The theory has produced a consistent research finding in the delinquency literature on the relationship between peer association and delinquency. Peers are believed to play a critical role in the learning process of individuals who become criminals, even though some studies have found that those peers must not necessarily be delinquent before they can influence others to become deviant. Therefore, the effect of peer influence can be studied from both perspectives (Reid, 2015).
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Fagin (2015) argued that although learning theories (including differential association theory) remain relevant in criminological thoughts and rehabilitation programs, they have failed to adequately explain why an individual chooses to learn criminal behaviour.
Igbo (2007) argued that the differential association theory may be useful in the explanation of professional theft, pick pocketing, armed robbery, hijacking, drug trafficking and many other crimes that require skills but cannot adequately explain murder, rape and assault which can be impulse driven and do not require expertise to commit.
3.4 Applicability of the Differential Association Theory to Cybercrime
Although the differential association theory was developed before the internet revolution, several studies have attempted to use it in the explanation of crime and deviance in the cyberspace. For example, Hawdon (2012) used differential association theory to explain online hate groups. He found that theory fit the current online environment and that recent trends of personalizing online experience further facilitates the fit. He argued that the personalization of online hate group visitors virtual world and tailoring of their interest will likely be directed to those who share their ideology and directed away from those who do not. This process, which may be inadvertent, will eventually increase their exposure to definitions of the world that teach them the motives for, techniques of, attitudes towards, and rationalization of hate-inspired violence. He also observed that the use of information and communication technology makes it easy for them to by-pass the control and censorship of parents, neighbours, public bodies and state officials, since they can share their opinions and goals from peer to peer. The implication is that those who habour extreme hate are more likely to find like-minded friends online than they would offline and their extreme ideology is less likely to be discovered by those who can exercise social control over them or offer a counter-ideology to discourage the hate. He concluded that the more hate groups increase online, the more likely hate-inspired groups will increase online.
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Maloku (2020) showed that a wide range of empirical studies have established an association between different forms of communication that associate delinquent friends with delinquent behaviour, or youth drug use.
Walkley (as cited in Holt, 2016) examined the extent to which differential association can explain a number of cybercrimes, including hacking and online fraud. She focused on open source data and findings that have been previously reported, on whether offenders interact or operate in isolation, like learning definitions that are favourable to committing crime. Apart from observing that hackers communicate online, at conference and by telephone, she concluded that most hackers acted alone. She finally concluded that that this implies that differential association cannot be applied to all forms of fraud since some fraudsters operate alone.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Differential association theory has remained relevant in the explanation of crime decades after it was developed by Sutherland. This is despite the criticisms that have been advanced by scholars about its applicability to some types of crime. Donald Cressey after Sutherland‟s death, have continued to revise the theory thereby making it even more relevant to contemporary times.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit discussed the background of differential association theory, the nine propositions of the theory, the strengths and weaknesses of the theory as well as its applicability to cybercrime.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Discuss the nine propositions of the Differential Association Theory.
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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Cullen, F.T., Agnew, R. & Wilcox, P. (2014). Criminological theory: Past to present.
NewYork: Oxford University Press.
Fagin, J.A. (2015). Criminal Justice 2015. Boston: Pearson.
Hawdon, J. (2012). Applying differential association theory to online hate groups: a theoretical statement. Research on Finnish Society, 5, 39-47.
Holt, T.J. (ed.) (2016). Crime online: Correlates, causes, and context.
Durham: Carolina Academic Press.
Igbo, E.U.M. (2007). Introduction to Criminology. Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press.
Maloku, A. (2020). Theory of differential association. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 9 (1) 170-178.
Reid, S.T. (2015). Crime and Criminology (14th ed.) New York: Wolters Kluwer.
Sutherland, E.H. (1947). Principles of Criminology (4th ed.).Philadelphia: Lippincott.
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