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2.3.1 Instructional Puzzles and Students’ Attitude to Social Studies

Attitude, according to Adebule and Aborisade (2013) is an effective variables that are of paramount importance for the well-being of an individual and the society, the authors posit that individuals are bound to acquire the right type of attitude toward self, work, other people and events. In the view of Ma and Kushor (1997), attidude is one of the variables that determine achievement. Citing Borabi (1990), Adebule and Aborisade (2013) assert that perception, attitude and expectation of students regarding mathematics and mathematics teaching are very significant factors that could influence students‟ achievement in mathematics. Since social studies is also one of the subjects in the school curriculum, students‟ attitude to the subject could be a major determinant of their academic performance.

In the view of Kaya (2011), attitude is the learnt tendency forcing individuals to exhibit particular behaviour against some particular people, object or condition. Kaya therefore submits that the formation of appropriate teaching experience and achievement of desired behaviour change cannot be accomplished in an atmosphere where students‟ attitudes are ignored in the learning process. This position is in line with that of Ulgen (1996) who submits that the attitude of a student will help the teacher determine what will lead to improved positive attitude towards the lesson and how to change negative attitude to positive. The findings of Dermirkanya and Anbas (2004) as cited by Kaya (2011) reveal negative attitude of students toward social science education due to lack of proper utilisation of technological tools and devices by the teacher.

Lilian (2012) citing Fishdein and Ajzen (1975) based on value-expectancy model states that a person‟s attitude determines his or her behaviour which could automatically affect the outcomes.

Lilian (2012) submits that a person would hold certain attitude towards an object by evaluating it which in turn enables the person to decide whether to hold a favourable or unfavourable view towards it thereby determining the person‟s intention to engage in various behaviour with regards to the particular object which could have served as a significant predictor of the final outcome.

Premised on this, the scholar concludes that there is a general consensus that attitude would be regarded as a significant predictor of students‟ academic achievement.

Scholars have noted that, the use of conventional method of teaching in social studies has led to ineffective learning and poor attitude towards the subject. Awad and Fikry (2013) assert that students who study at various learning stages are favourably disposed to interesting methods which are interactive coupled with excitement and fun thereby implying students‟ positive attitude to instructional puzzles as they are interesting and interactive. Michalewicz and Michalewicz (2007) found students‟ positive disposition to instructional puzzles due to the attributes enshrined

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in puzzles in terms of being engaging, thought-provoking and entertaining. The significant place of learners‟ attitude in the determination of academic achievement and the fact that scholars have identified poor attitude of students towards social studies premised on the dominance of conventional method of instruction necessitated the choice of students‟ attitude as one of the variables examined in this study.

2.3.2 Instructional Puzzles and Students’ Academic Achievement in Social Studies

The efficacy of instructional puzzles in the teaching-learning process has been established by a lot of researches. In the view of Edge (2011), puzzles have long being a favourite of kids, moms and educators. The scholar therefore posits that the exposure of children to variety of puzzles would enhance their early childhood educational experience at home and in school by developing their cognitive skill, fine motor skill, hand-eye coordination and social skills.

The findings of Rubinstein, Dhotble and Ferenchick (2009) show that puzzles can facilitate learning in a relaxed environment. The researchers found the effectiveness of puzzles in the development of medical students‟ overall understanding of electrocardiogram and subsequently improve their interpretation skills. Coulter (2003) finds the effectiveness of puzzles through online Mathematics puzzles. The results of the investigation revealed that the use of online puzzles built cohesive social environment, promoted academic skill development, enhanced the desire to persevere in facing challenges and significant improvement in standardised test scores. The study of Kaka (2008) on the use of puzzle in chemistry classroom reveals the efficacy in promoting academic achievement.

The study conducted by Saxena, Nesbitt, Pahwa and Mills (2009) also lays credence to the effectiveness of puzzles. Awad and Fikry‟s (2013) investigation shows significant effect of instructional puzzles on vocabulary development of learners. The result shows that cross-word puzzles provide students with an opportunity to; think critically, collaborate, compete and discuss salient concepts using essential vocabulary associated with the concept. Awad and Friky (2013) posit that puzzles are wonderful tool for helping learners develop skills necessary for reading, writing and solving problems coupled with the retention of the learners‟ attention. Chen (2012) examined the effects of puzzle-based learning on students‟ achievement in arithmetic and found significant effect of the strategy on students‟ achievement and confidence in doing arithmetic and calculation. The study carried out by Alemi (2010) on improving students‟ vocabulary asserts significant effect of puzzles on students‟ achievement. The findings of Aremu and Ayelaagbe (1997) further attest to the efficacy of instructional puzzles in instructional delivery. The study carried out by Adedoja, Abidoye and Afolabi (2013) attests to the effectiveness of puzzles in

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promoting students‟ achievement in social studies. Coulter (2003) concedes to the fact that puzzle can build the understanding of straight forward arithmetic concepts and complex ecosystem dynamics. In spite of the effectiveness of puzzle-based instruction, the utilisation is not prominent in the teaching-learning process particularly in social studies, most of the studies carried out on the effectiveness of instructional puzzles on students‟ academic achievement are not computer-based and therefore do not go in line with modern technology utilisation which is computer-based on computer. This study therefore examined the effect of computer-based self-learning instructional puzzles on Junior Secondary School students‟ learning outcomes and retention in social studies.

2.3.3 Instructional Puzzles and Retention in Social Studies

The essence of social studies is to produce citizens that are responsible and responsive so as to contribute meaningfully to the growth and development of the society. The strategic role of social studies in the society requires learners to retain and transfer skills, knowledge and attitude acquired in social studies to address real life issues. According to Achor and Shaibu (2013), social studies is geared towards producing effective students who will in turn contribute to the growth and development of their immediate community. However, the authors‟ investigation shows non- realisation of the goals set for social studies due to the dominance of conventional instructional strategy in the classroom thereby necessitating the need to embrace technological based strategy such as computer-based self-learning instructional strategy that could make the subject easy to learn and assimilate. According to Falkner, Saorimarthi and Michalewicz (2009), puzzle-based learning provides opportunity for students to explore critical thinking. The study conducted by these scholars reveals consistent development of puzzle-solving skills which cumulated into excellent performance of the students in examination thereby reflecting the efficacy of instructional puzzle in improving retention

In the view of Oladele (2004), learning can effectively be facilitated through certain rules and principles which include; active participation of the learner in the learning process, learners‟

acceptance of major responsibility for learning, learning in a free atmosphere amongst others. The incorporation of all these elements in the computer-based self-learning instructional puzzles shows that puzzle could facilitate learning and retention. The study of Coulter (2003) reveals the efficacy of puzzle on students‟ ability to retain learnt material as the performance of the students exposed to puzzle-based learning in mathematics improved significantly in the examination conducted in the fall of the following year. Kaka (2008) confirms the efficacy of puzzle in enhancing retention as students exposed to puzzle were able to recall the knowledge gained after many months. The investigation carried out by Awad and Fikry (2013) on the long term effect of

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puzzles on students‟ retention in vocabulary reveal significant effect of puzzles on retention which was attributed to the attribute inherent in puzzles in terms of the development of skills to read, write and solve problems.

2.3.4 Gender, Learning Outcomes and Retention in Social Studies

Gender will remain an important variable in the understanding of issues of politics and political participation, education, the environment, health, religion, cultural belief and value (Omololu, Olurode and Soyombo, 1999). According to these scholars, gender is a social interpretation of being male or female. That is, the social conception of the expectation and behaviour considered appropriate for those identified as male or female. According to them, gender is dynamic in the sense that its‟ identities change, are culture bound and is an important determinant of an individual experience in Nigeria.

Omololu, Olurode and Soyombo (1999) assert that the social conception of roles, expectations, opportunities and privileges attached to being a member of a particular sex is so strong that upon ascertaining the sex of a baby, it is always possible to predict the child‟s life changes. Females are believed to be fulfilled only in their role as wives and mothers which adversely affect their education. They assert that though, there are no discrimination rules on enrolment at schools based on gender but people‟s attitude, value and beliefs continue to influence the education of male and female with specific consequences such as the encouragement of boys to embrace subjects considered difficult such as Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry while girls are encouraged to embrace subjects in arts and social sciences.

Amoda (2008) citing Riley (1997) posits gender as the social and cultural conditions of being male or female. It centres on the role men and women play in the society. According to Amoda, gender influences all aspect of our lives, the education we receive, the social role we play and the power and authority we command. Awoniyi (2000) in his investigation on the performance of male and female candidates in six courses studied at College of Education, Lafiaji shows that females out-performed males in English Language while the opposite is the case in teaching practice. The study also reveals that male out-performed female in accounting and statistics but not in typewriting.

The study of boys‟ and girls‟ performance in GCE „A‟ Level examination over four years by Brokin, Eccieston and Burrow (1990) shows that boys out-performed girls in all the 16 subjects studied except English Language and Literature in English. Mohammed (2000) submits that gender bias in education dates back to the colonial period when only a minority of upper and middle class females who obtained higher education concentrate in arts and humanities . The

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study shows that the academic achievement of males is greater than that of females. Bello and Philip (2004) also find that females performed poorly in mathematics when compared with their male counterparts despite the efforts of the teachers. Zember and Blume (2009) ascertain gender difference in academic performance. The study carried out by Okereke, and Onwukwe (2011) reveal significant effect of gender on students‟ academic achievement.

Jekayinoluwa (2005) laments that the school and nation are making profound contributions to the creation of learning environment that is favourable to the boys which could be responsible for gender difference in learning outcomes and retention. According to Oludipe (2012), certain vocations and professions have traditionally been regarded as men‟s (medicine, engineering, architecture) and others such as (nursing, catering, typing, arts) as women‟s. To Oludipe (2012), typically, parents call boys to wash cars, cut grass, fix bulb and climb ladders to fix or remove things while girls are assigned into washing dishes, cooking amongst others. In a nutshell, boys are expected to handle complex and difficult tasks while girls are saddled with relatively easy and less demanding tasks. The above postulations reveal that males are orientated toward tasks that are perceived to be difficult while females are expected to be involved in tasks believed to be easy and less challenging which could imply choosing subjects and courses that are considered easy to pass in their academic endeavour. Adeosun (2002) reveals no significant difference in academic achievement based on gender but finds significant effect of gender on retention in social studies which could be attributed to more positive disposition of female to social studies than male students. Kolawole (2007) shows gender difference in academic performance when exposed to cooperative and competitive learning strategies with the boys performing significantly better than girls. However, Abdu-Raheem (2012) finds no significant effects of gender on learning outcomes and retention in social studies which is in line with the finding of Oludipe (2012). Chiodo (2004) asserts the postulations of many policy makers and elementary teachers who viewed social studies as “enrichment” or “second ranked” subject thereby influencing students‟ attitude to the subject.

The view held by teachers in respect of social studies as a subject in the school curriculum encourage the teachers to focus on superficial issues by giving high priority to facts instead of in-depth study of issues involved in social studies which by inference could have negative effect on students‟ learning outcomes and retention in social studies. Huseyin and Gunes (2012) find that students‟ attitude levels towards social studies is positive and high but degenerate as students proceed to higher classes which could be attributed to more comprehensive content and abstract topics. The authors further assert better female‟s attitude to social studies than male which runs

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contrary to the findings of Guven (2008), Caliskan and Turan (2010) who find no significant difference between male and female students‟ attitude towards social studies courses.

The influence of gender on learning outcomes and retention as observed by various scholars therefore makes the examination of its influence on the dependent variables premised on the use of computer-based self-learning instructional puzzles relevant in this study.

2.3.5 Cognitive style, Learning Outcomes and Retention in Social Studies

Cognitive style is a learner‟s characteristic that has effect on learning outcomes since the way individuals perceive process, retain, experience, organise information and address problems vary. Dembo (1991) cited in Morrison and Frick (1994) states that field dependent persons are drawn to people, prefer academic areas such as social science that are more people oriented and are better at learning and remembering impersonal materials. Ige (1998) posits that most of the differences encountered in students‟ learning could be described in terms of different manner in which students perceive and analyse a stimulus while Ogundipe (2002) asserts that the understanding of individual learning style will to a great extent lead to reduction in teachers‟ and students‟ frustration. This submission implies that cognitive style will influence the choice of instructional strategy with the aim of facilitating learning and improve students‟ learning outcomes. Chou (2007) citing Schwartz and Hanson (1992) states that females preferred to learn mathematics through unconventional style which; fosters group consensus, encourages collaboration and contributes to constructing interrelationship of thoughts while males learnt through argument and individual activities which fosters independence and encourages competition. The implication of this postulation is that there is gender difference in how students receive and process information which could also be a determinant of students‟ learning outcomes and retention.

Ormrod(2008) asserts that cognitive style seems to influence how and what students learn. This assertion of Ormrod (2008) substantiates Tinajero and Paramo (1997) who identify cognitive style as a significant source of variation in overall performance of students in subject domains such as English Language, mathematics, natural sciences, social science, Spanish and Galician. The study of Morphy, Casey, Day and Young (1977) reveals the effects of cognitive style on academic achievement. The finding of Hall (2000) also asserts the significant effects of cognitive style on learning outcomes. Sara (2010) posits that there is a significant effect of cognitive style on students‟ attitude towards various school subjects. According to Sara (2010), field dependent students are better disposed to arts and social science subjects while field independent students prefer scientific and mechanical vocational areas. Sara (2010), citing

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Yakassi (1991) states that field dependent students tend towards social studies which is the bedrock of artistic and social sciences while field independent students show high level of interest towards integrated science which is the bedrock of scientific and chemical career. The study further shows gender difference in cognitive style with male being more of field independent and female more of field dependent.

However, the study of Altun and Cakan (2006) which focused on undergraduate students‟

academic achievement based on field independence/dependence cognitive style finds no significant effect of cognitive style on academic achievement. So also, Morrison and Frick (1994) find no significant effect of cognitive style on academic achievement but stress the fact that the field independent learners in their study found the multimedia module easy to use and were excited using it. The findings of Chou (2007) reveal significant effect of cognitive style on learning outcomes with the field independent students on the higher side but the interaction effect of cognitive style and gender as well as the three-way interaction effect of treatment, cognitive style and gender was not significant.

The above postulations based on the findings of different scholars make the examination of the effect of cognitive style appropriate in this study since it has influence on learners‟

preference for instructional strategy which could also affect their academic achievement, attitude towards school subjects and ability to retain the content of the topics learnt.

2.3.6 Students’ Attitude towards Reading

Reading culture has been identified as one of the problems facing students in Nigeria.

Obafemi (2006) attributes poor reading culture among Nigerians to poor economy which has made reading expensive based on the cost of textbooks. However, he was quick to identify that people prefer to stay in their homes and watch videos.

Harold (2001) stipulates that lack of good reading habit among Nigerians has become a great challenge to publishers. Nwachukwu (2009) decries poor attitude towards reading among Nigerian students. To him, film shows and home videos watched virtually in every home has hindered students from performing well in examinations and robbed them of the zeal to make proper use of library. The submission of Nwachukwu (2009) implies that poor attitudes to reading may not be exclusively based on poverty but on attitude and commitment to modern technology such as computer and video.

Ifedili (2009) posits that there is a declined in the reading culture among the students in tertiary institutions. According to the scholar, 60 percent of the students read prescribed textbooks only during examination period while browsing and watching television have taken most of their

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time for reading, only 21 per cent of students buy novels to read for knowledge and pleasure.

Adeniji‟s (2010) investigation shows that some primary school pupils find it difficult to read and understand despite the fact that reading is indispensable. According to the scholar, some pupils exhibit care free attitude towards reading. Oyetunde and Unoh (1986) cited in Adeniji (2010) list impediments such as lack of materials, poor preparation of teachers, lack of interest, poor library or lack of library, home background and lack of adult readers as models to reading among Nigerian students.

Chukwuemeka (1998) cited in Jegede (2010) attributes failure to read to people‟s attitude towards book. To him, Nigeria does not have a reading culture since our ancestors had oral tradition. The author posits that a change from oral to book culture would require a process of sustained conditioning to open up the consciousness to appreciate the indispensability of book lovers.

The views and findings of various scholars in relation to students‟ attitude towards reading revealed that there is general poor reading habit among Nigerian students while their disposition to watching video and browsing is high which could be attributed to relaxation, fun and interactivity inherent in them. It is therefore incumbent on stakeholders to incorporate teaching strategies that will allow for learning in a relaxed atmosphere with element of fun and interactivity. These types of strategies could incorporate amongst others the use of computer-based self-learning instructional puzzles for instruction.