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According to Reisigl and Wodak (2001: 44), referential and predicational strategies are the ways people name or construct and describe the target group or individuals with peculiar identifiable features that distinguish them as members of specific social groups. This implies therefore that social actors operating in discourses are identified as members of particular social groups, with common beliefs, goals and aspirations, due largely to the kinds of names or identities given to these actors and the ways these names/identities are described in terms of qualities or characteristics attributed to them. Since there is always a motive behind each utterance, apparently, these referential and predicational strategies discursively reveal and positioned interactants in specific social groups; a feature that gives credence to claims of the presence of various aspects of social solidarity in the textual networks of these novels.

In PH, for instance, the nominal/referential used designate the characters as members of specific social groups. The referential strategies used in PH are enhanced by the kind of names assigned to each character in the novel which denote familial and other social bonds that designate the characters. As a referential strategy, names like: ‘Papa (Brother Eugene Achike)’, ‘Papa-Nnukwu’, ‘Mama’, ‘Aunty Ifeoma’, ‘my brother (Jaja)’

designate familiality. The notion of ‘Papa’, ‘Mama’ ‘Aunty’ and ‘Papa Nnukwu’ in reference to these characters whose actual names are hardly used, is a discursive means to demonstrate the strong family ties existing between the characters; a strategy that illuminates familial solidarity. This naming system in PH seems to be a near perfect discourse strategy of projecting familial ties in the novel; which is one of the

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categorisation processes that has enabled the determination of the characters’

identification and reaction towards familial issues in the novel. The use of the referent

‘Papa Nnukwu’; an Igbo expression referring to ‘grand-father’ figures in the family, for instance, is a predicational strategy that signifies ethnification. The deployment of these kinds of referential is therefore a strategy which has granted the use of nominal groups such as: ‘our family’, ‘my brother’ and the reiterated use of the collective plural pronoun

‘we’ in reference to the ‘family’ signifying strong familial solidarity. These familial bonds are coded in expressions such as ‘my brother (Jaja)’, ‘Papa’ and ‘Mama’ in PH signify not just ordinary family ties but strong familial bonds that lead to collective indulgence in the performance of activities and defence of interests of the group so as to maintain group membership. For instance, expressions such as: ‘we had just returned from church…’, [PH: p.11] ‘…we would take the fronds to church…’ [PH: p.11] have arisen from the referential strategy which signifies strong ties in the family; a people with shared beliefs and collective will in task execution. Therefore, the plural pronoun first person, ‘we’, in ‘we had just returned from church…’ [PH: p.11], ‘…we would take the fronds to church…’ [PH: p.11], is indicative of the strong familial bond existing between the family. This is one of the discursive features explicating Durkheim’s idea of social solidarity; the ability of the individuals to interact peacefully, identify and sympathise with one another so as to build and sustain social relationships as members of a particular social group. This implies a reduction of disparities which generally enable people to feel sense secured as they are engaged in pursuit of common goals, dealing with challenges and the collective will to perform tasks owing to the fact that they are members of the same community.

Furthermore, the referential discourse strategy deployed in PH has also evoked the sense of religious solidarity which is reflected in the names and then the description of these characters with predicational modifiers. For instance, referential such as: ‘‘Father Benedict’’, (who is described as: ‘our new priest … with a British nose’), ‘Father Amadi’

(referred to as ‘our young priest’), ‘The Reverend Sisters’ (some are identified as ‘White Reverend Sisters’ and others are described as ‘Nigerian Reverend Sisters’), and the description of ‘Papa Achike’ as ‘Brother Eugene’, the insertion of ‘brother’ is a predicational strategy that designates ‘Eugene Achike’ as a staunch member of the catholic church and ‘Papa Nnukwu’, are the referential and predicational discourse strategies that identify, distinguish and harness the various perspectives of these

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characters. These referential and predicational discourse strategies clearly illustrate the undertones in the belief systems of the characters which consequently create a social environment that mop up the nature of their religious solidarity.

Furthermore, the nomination and predicational discourse strategies culminate into classifications and descriptions of religious groups; the Catholic Church and the non-catholic churches which are referred to as ‘mushroom protestant churches’ [PH: p.13], and traditional religion. This depiction further demonstrates the positive description of one’s group and the negative reference to the other group in which one does not belong;

the religious solidarity vegetates in these referential and predicational strategies.

Consequently, members of each religious sect, especially those in the Catholic community like Father Benedict and Brother Eugene Achike, consider other religious sects as ‘mushroom protestant churches’ [PH: p.13]. And to further demonstrate religious disparities, Father Benedict is referred to as ‘Our new Priest … with a British nose’;

Eugene Achike is ‘Brother’, Father Amadi as ‘our young Priest’. These are the positive depiction of self and members of a particular social group. Meanwhile members of the non-Catholic community like Papa Nnukwu, are excluded from the group rather, he is referred to as a non-believer; a negative description of others to show that they belong to a different social group. With these sets of referential and predications, the identities of the characters are plotted and the nature of solidarity of these individuals and groups is strategically positioned in the textual network of the novel.

In HOAYS, the referential and predicational strategies deployed designate ethnic and national solidarities in the novel. Apparently, the names and the predicational tactics categorised these characters into various nationalities and ethnic groups around the world.

Some of these characters are associated with identities of foreign countries’ while identity of others could be traced to the various ethnic groups within the Nigerian geographical setting. Consequently, there are names specifically signifying that the characters in question are from among the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria: Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba. With this discourse strategy, characters referred to as foreigners, are attributed with identities denoting the different countries or regions in Europe where they come from. In this respect, we have characters named and strategically categorised with descriptions that reveal their ethnic nationalities; which apparently signal their loyalties and the nature of their solidarity. For instance, Mr Johnson is described as someone ‘who was from the Caribbean’(HOAYS: p.18), Professor Lehman, as ‘the nasal white man

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from America’(HOAYS: p.18), Dr Patel is referred to as ‘the Indian Man’ (HOAYS:

p.18), Mr Richard Churchill is described as coming from ‘Britain’, Susan Grenvillepitts is said to be of ‘British origin’[HOAYS: p.55], and Aunt Elizabeth, is said to be from

‘Britain’.

Similarly, through the referential and predicational strategies some of the characters could be classified as representing the different regions or ethnic groups in Nigeria. As a result, a name like Professor Ezeka, does not only suggest that this is a character with a University background but the name ‘Ezeka’ provides the Professor with traits of Igbo extraction from the eastern part of Nigeria. Furthermore, another character is simply called ‘Okeoma’, and described as looking younger than the other guests that visit Odenigbo (HOAYS: p.18). This name suggest that she is from the eastern part of Nigeria; therefore might be of Igbo extraction since such a name is associated with the people from that part of the country. Another character is simply referred to as: Miss Adebayo; described as: ‘who drank brandy like Master…’ (HOAYS: p.19) and that ‘she was not an Igbo woman’ (HOAYS: p.19). With a name like, ‘Adebayo’ is a hint that she is of Yoruba extraction from the southern part of Nigeria. The predicational ‘...she was not an Igbo woman’ further reinforce this assertion. The prefix ‘Miss’ before her name does not just signify that she is an unmarried lady but seems to be a strategy to further demonstrate that she is a single lady and a revolutionary; probably reason as to why she

‘drank brandy like Master’ (HOAYS: p.19). The name and description of characters such as: Chief Ozobia, Olanna Ozobia, Kainene Ozobia and Uncle Mbaezi; designate them as members of a particular ethnic group, particularly from Igbo extraction of the eastern part of Nigeria. From the naming of other characters that are categorised as being members of ethnic groups from the Northern part of Nigeria include: Mohammed, Muslim students, Abdulmalik, The beggars, who are described as being ‘outside the gates of Mohammed’s family home…’ (HOAYS: p.43).

These referential and predicational discourse strategies, therefore, define the characters and associate each with a specific region or social group. This manner of character affiliation is a discourse strategy to explicate solidarity that easily breeds from the nature of these identifications that positioned characters attachment to their social groups. This scenario demonstrates the fact that the textual networks in HOAYS, predominantly, illuminate ethnic and national aspects of social solidarities.

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Likewise, due to the thematic preoccupation of AH, the referential and predicational strategies in the novel take the dimension of naming and categorisation of characters into two major groups showing their places of origin: the American and Non-American groups. And within these major groups, there are other sub-groups which are classified into social classes; allegiance to these groups and the quality of solidarity among members in these groups become obvious. The discursive effect is such that, within the America group, we have ‘White Americans and Coloured Americans’. The White American group is made up of those American considered to be of pure ‘white blood’ and therefore well-brought-up. The ‘coloured Americans’ refers to that category of social groups such as Hispanic, Indians, and African Americans who are described as

‘niggers’ (AH: p.137). The Non-American group is predicated as ‘Negroes’ or migrants from Africa, Jamaica and other countries in the world. Consequently, with these referential and predicational strategies, individual’s affirmation and attachment to particular social group is easily determined. To earmark the undertone for ethnic solidarity, referential and predicational discourse strategies deployed n the novel classifies even the African migrants as members of different social groups. Mariama and her sister, Halima, are described as coming from Mali, Aisha from Senegal, and Ifemelu from Nigeria. With this discourse strategy, the characters’ categorisation and alignment to specific social groups to which they belong is easily exploited and how they refer to self, as immigrants, and members of the other group, especially the whites, is easily deciphered.

Apparently, just like what we have in HOAYS, the referential discourse strategy in AH falls into what Leeuwen (1996) considers to be ethnification, which is considered an aspect of culturalisation; a situation whereby elements from ethnicity are used as referential means to designate the characters’ social identity; when it comes to allegiance to one’s group, peoples’ social identities play a very important role in their attachment of self and identification with others who share the same social background with them. This type of categorisation of social actors through the referential and predicational discourse strategies is used by Adichie to construct characters’ identities, by overtly specifying the nature and character of their social solidarity.

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