the youths and women leaders are two years term respectively. Also, there is a condition guarding their operations and activities. However, if any executive member of the council or associations errs or violates the principles guiding the association as provided in the constitution he/she could be remove from office and may face sanctions by the members.
and stem youth restiveness. The local and state government rely on the traditional leadership to enforce civil laws and maintain order in the communities. This is achievable through regular interface between the traditional institutions and the local as well as state government (Figure 4.32).
Project LGA/ SG FG
Communities/ NGOs
Leadership
Figure 4.32: Relationship between the Traditional Institutions and modern Governance
Emerging Power Brokers in The Communities
In addition to the constituted traditional governance structure in the project communities, the study identifies emerging groups that seemingly wielding enormous power in the area.
During group discussion and consultation meetings between the study team and the communities, it was clearly observed that, community executives/village councils, youths and women association executives have seen coming up very forcefully in community issues and decision making. According to George Ayibatoye a 36 year old Youth President of Sangama community, during the interactive session, he said “It is us that knows what comes into the community and we have our own ways of taking care of problems so that peace can reign you know that our elders are not too strong to do what we are doing”.
The emergence of militancy and other youth restiveness is an example of outburst of new power broker in the Niger Delta region. There are strong youth socio-political organizations as well as the vigilante groups that work with the village chairman and Village Heads to ensure that civil laws made by the Village Council are effectively enforced including security of lives and properties as well as built oil facilities of SPDC and other companies including local state, and federal government. Women association is another institution identified to be having great influence in community affairs. This was seen in all the communities surveyed.
Interestingly, faith-based organization (FBOs), religious leaders of different church denominations were also identified as having so much influence on their followers. Most family issues between couples are settled by their Pastors as most especially women rely on them for counselling. Some respondents affirmed roles played by juju priest for one form of problem solving” or the other.
4.9.5: Conflict and Conflict Resolution Mechanisms in the Project Communities
Conflict is an important social variable in any EIA study. Its identification and resolution mechanisms in the project area was very crucial. According to Okoh (2005), the Niger Delta region, the crude oil bearing region of Nigeria has witnessed an unprecedented spate of
violent conflicts in the recent past, and all efforts to quell the conflict seems to have failed to yield the desire results. This study chronological presents the trend of conflicts in the region.
Worsening levels of poverty, lack of basic infrastructure, economic disempowerment, human rights violations, social disorder, absence of governance and ever-deepening integration into the global capitalist market economy (Tables 4.29, 4.30 & 4.31).
Table 4.29: Oil Companies/Communities Conflicts
S/N Date Community/LGA State Cause of action Outcome
1 1971 Ejamah-Ebubu
(Ogoni)
Rivers Oil Spill Destruction of farmlands threatening flora fauna
2 19711996 Bayelsa
State
Oil Spills and Pollution Statistics from the DPR indicates that between 1976 and 1996 a total of 4835 incidents resulted in the spillage of at least 2.446,332 barrels (102,7 million US gallons) 3 May 8, 1997 Elele Alimini Rivers
State
Oil Spill at Mininta Rumuekpe Pipeline
Oil production generates conflicts, large area of farmland, fishponds destroyed shell alleged it was caused by the tenant family.
4 March 27,
1998
Jones Creek Flow Station
Delta State Oil Spills at Jones Creek Identified by Shell as pipeline failure
20,000 barrels (840,000 U.S gallons) killing large number of fishes
5 1987 Iko Akwa
Ibom
Series of disturbances in Iko following a protest against shell
Mobil Police burnt down 40 houses
6 1976-1996 Bayelsa
State
Oil Spills and Pollution Statistics from the DRP indicates that between 1976 and 1996 a total of 4835 incidents resulted in the spillage of at least 2.446,322 barrels (102.7 million U.S gallons).
7 October 30-31, 1990
U-Muechem-Etche Rivers Protest by youths against total neglect by SPDC and Government of Nigeria
The community was razed by mobile policemen. Over 100 people were killed, and 495 houses destroyed
8 October
1998
Jesse Delta Pipeline explosion More than 1000 people died 9 July 2000 Adje near Warri Delta Pipeline explosion Several hundred people died 10 November
1999
Odi Bayelsa That on November 4, 1999
and armed gang killed seven Nigerian policemen in Odi
Soldiers move into Odi and razed the community, 2483 people, including women and children died
11 July 10,
2005
Ikarama-Yengoa LGA
Bayelsa Oil Spill Serious impact on the flora and fauna including their arable land and swamp.
12 February 19, 2005 (saturday)
Odioma Bayelsa Payment of compensation to Bassambiri instead of Odioma by shell petroleum Development Company
More than 18 people were killed
13 July, 2005 Bille Pro test River The community said that for 45 years shell has been prospecting oil and gas in their locality and that they have nothing to show for
their economic
contribution to the nation (Nigeria) except impact.
Ecological violence through environmental pollution, destruction of the ecosystem health problems
14 October 14, 2000
Olugbobiri Southern Ijaw
Bayelsa Unarmed youths
approached the Tebidaba flow station to protest the failure of NAOC to complete certain agreed projects in the Olugbobiri community
Soldiers and Naval personnel at the flow station opened fire on the boasts conveying the youths, 8 were killed and another died later in hospital. Several bodies were not recovered, and more than 16 persons were injured.
15 January 1999
Ikeremor Zion, Opia and Ikenya
Delta Armed soldiers aided and abetted by Chevron Nigeria limited raided the communities belonging to the Ijaw people.
The communities were burnt down leaving several people dead and injured
16 January, 30 1999
Ogulagha Delta Youths demanding for
employment in recognition of the Kaiama declaration.
Many youths were shot and 19 died with many injured
17 May 17, Kokodiagbene Delta Soldiers escorting shell Killed two youths of the Ijaw extraction
S/N Date Community/LGA State Cause of action Outcome
18 May 28,
1998
Parable platform Ondo 120 youths from llaje community went to the Chevron offshore drilling facility known as parable platform where they requested to meet with Chevron officials to demand compensation for environmental damage caused by canals cut from Chevron
Nigeria Navy and Mobile Police fired the demonstrators killing two people. Jolly Ogungbeje and Arolika Irowarinum.
19 December 2003
Rukpokwu-Obio-Akpor LGA
Rivers Oil Spill Fish ponds, farmlands and livelihood are seriously devastated
20 Ekeni-Ezetu Bayelsa Non-implementation of
MOU by Texaco
Chevron-Texaco operates here.
Source: Compiled by the Author, 2018
Table 4.30: Inter-Community Conflicts in the Niger Delta Region
SN Communities Involved Causes Year
1 Bassambiri and Ogbolomabiri L.G.A
(location of Headquarters)
1997
2 Akassa and koluama land dispute 2002
3 Ogu and Bolou 2000
4 Ke and Bile 2001
5 Eleme and Okirika Land dispute 2001
6 Okirika and Ikwerre Land dispute
7 Illajes and Ijaws Territorial/land dispute 1999/1998
8 Ijaws and Itsekiri’s LGA Creation/ Ward creation/Territorial/land dispute 2000/2004/1991
9 Andoni and Ogboni 1970/1974/1998
10 Urhobo’s and Itsekiri’s 1997/1998
11 Akassa and Egweama 2000
12 Biseni and Okordia Land/Oil field 2002
13 Epedu Versus Emadike Land 1999/2000
14 Amabolou and Ayama 2001
15 Ekeremor and Ogbodobiri Privacy Issue 2004
16 Okpoama and Ewoama Chieftaincy 1998
17 Biogbolo and Yeneizue Land 2001
18 Okpoama and Twon-Brass Land 1999
19 Peremabiri and Diebu
20 Oluasiri (Nembe) and Orusangama (Kalabiri) Territorial/land dispute 1994/95
21 Oleh Versus Olomoro Oil field dipute 1999
22 Beletiema Versus Liama Murder of a Woman 1997
23 Opuama and Ofonibiri 2000
24 Okuruama Versus Abuloma Murder of a Woman 2005
25 Apoi Versus Agip Oil Spillage 2003
26 Choba Youths Versus Wibros Social amenities 2000
27 Egi youths Versus Agip Social amenities
28 Black Markets Crisis Youth Versus Military
29 Okpoama-Turu Versus Agip Social amenities
30 Tebidaba Versus Agip Social amenities
31 Ikebiri Versus Agip Social amenities 1998
32 Ojobo Versus shell SPDC Violation of MOU. Social responsibilities 1998
33 Gbarain Versus SPDC Social amenities 1992
34 Gbarain Oil Field owner versus SPDC Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 1994
35 Gbarain Community versus SPDC IOGP (EIA) 1992
36 Rukpokwu versus SPDC Oil Spillage 2004
37 Epie communities versus SPDC Oil Spillage 2003
38 Elekahia Youths versus Nkpogu Youths Social responsibility 2000
39 Niger Delta Peoples Volunteer Resources control, self-determination, convocation of national conference
2004 40 Niger Delta Vigilantee versus Niger Delta
Peoples Volunteer Force
Protection of rights 2004
41 Obioku versus Odioma Murder of twelve persons 2005
42 Olugbobiri vs Ologboro Oil well field 2002
43 Opuoma and Oforibiri Land dispute 2000
Source: Nengi 2015 and Akpan, 2018.
Table 4. 31: Intra-community conflicts
SN Communities involved Causes Year
1 Ikanyabiri Chieftaincy Tussle 2004
2 Ekeremor Community Development Committee Leadership
(CDC)
2004
3 Olugbobiri CDC Leaders 2004
4 Epebu Youths Leadership tussle 2004
5 Bassambiri Political groups 2003
6 Imiringi 2000
7 Peremabiri Control of Community resources (several person killed, houses burnt etc)
2000 8 Isongufuru versus Teme
(Nembe-Ogbolomabiri)
Several killed/houses burnt 2000
9 Igbomotoru (Intra) LGA Headquarters location 2001/2002
10 Enewari Houses Burnt/destroyed
11 Kalabari Kingship Tussie 2000
12 Opobo Kingship Tussie Settled
13 Ogbakiri Several people killed, houses destroyed
Source: Adapted from Nengi James Op. Cit
Some studies (UNDP, (2010) Ukoh, (2010) Social Action Briefing, (2011) and Akpan (2018), reported that, conflicts in the Niger Delta and by extension the project communities are grouped under four(4) namely, intra-community, inter-community, inter-ethnic and between community and oil companies. Findings reveals that, that there has been increasing youth restiveness in communities within the region. Communities have come into conflict with oil companies, with each other, and with the security forces over a range of issues including payments of compensation for land acquired and for environmental damages caused by oil exploration activities. Proliferated armed groups have waged systematic campaigns against the government, oil companies and other donor agencies to have their demands met.
Findings reveals that, poverty oil spillage, neglect of stakeholders host communities by oil companies, high rate of unemployment, gas flaring. Lukewarm attitude to infrastructural development including roads, jetties, school blocks, health facilities, electricity, skill acquisition centres etc., failure to implement planned activities in the memorandum of understanding (MOU), non-compliance with court orders and rulings, poor communication as well as intimidation were identified as triggers and cause of conflicts in the project area communities and in the region. One whole, the study identified five (5) types of conflicts across the communities (Table 4.32).
Table 4.32: Conflict Profile and Resolution Mechanisms across Project Communities
S/N Type of Conflict Major Causes Resolution
Mechanisms 1. Conflict within families Poverty, unemployment and marital
infidelity kids
Family Head through dialogue
2. Conflict between families Power and authority, property sharing and rights
Family Head by dialogue.
3. Conflict within communities Leadership tussle, resource sharing, Dialogue
S/N Type of Conflict Major Causes Resolution Mechanisms and interest groups sectional/family dominance and
marginalization
4. Conflict between
communities
Resource ownership mainly water, land and forest reserves)
Dialogue/Conflict
5. Conflicts between
communities and companies
Not honouring MOU agreement, slow pace to community development
Dialogues and/or court ruling
6. Conflicts between
communities and
government
Inadequate (lack) of infrastructural development projects
Dialogue/Court ruling
Source: Field Survey, 2018
The study shows that, conflicts arising within families are mainly caused by marital infidelity and leadership struggle and could be resolved by the village heads through dialogue. Also, conflicts arising within or between communities are caused by leadership struggle or ownership of resources (land and water). It could be resolved by dialogue or court approach.
According to Mr. Boumokuma Sample a 46 year old youth leader of Odio-ama community, says “it depends on the type of problem, some matter de need our community leaders to settle, example if pigin and mama fight or woman or man sleep with person wife or husband. This one we go settle am for community. But, if na another community wan to claim our land, that one na war and na for court wey such matter de go at last”. Result also reveals that, conflicts emanate between communities and companies/government over lack of provision of infrastructures, unemployment of indigene, non-compliance to signed MoU, etc.
During FGD sessions, discussants admitted that, conflict do occur in the project communities and the resolution mechanism is applied due to the nature of the conflict and the capacity of the mediator(s). Most conflicts identified were resolved through dialogue and by court of law or negotiation using law enforcement agents especially Police. Family and community conflicts were best settled more with dialogue and negotiation unless where serious cases like kidnapping, murder, and armed robbery cases are involved, security agencies are usually contacted. SPDC (2014), Akpan (2018) Umoh (2017) and Ukoh (2010) upheld that, in using dialogue or negotiation special meetings are summoned by the elders-in-council, council of chiefs, elders and chiefs assembly, religious leaders, juju priests youth council and women groups. Matters are settled by imposing penalties such as fines, on the culprit, seizures of assets and ostracism. This result is consistent with SPDC (2014) reporting that this mechanism is quite successful and yielding good results.
Social Control Mechanisms across the Communities
During FGD sessions in the fourteen (14) project communities, social control mechanisms were critically assessed. Feedbacks received shows that, there are traditional and modern approaches to handling social tensions. Traditionally, there are various community norms, mores and traditional esteemed values which each member of the community (both natives and non-natives) is expected to adhere to. Study reveals that, infidelity among woman and
stealing by any member of the community are considered deviant behaviours. There are penalties meted to the culprits and at worst case the person may be ostracised. Women and youths are in the forefront of enforcing these laws.
The Church and Chief priests also assist in keeping in check people’s behaviours. For instance, community member(s) who steals could be threatened with invoking of curses on offenders by the juju priest. The church in also active in counselling, preachment using Holy Bible. Deviants who are Christian devout risk dis-fellowship by his or her church congregation. Those working in palaces or other sacred places in the community may face ostracism and rejection. It was found that, offenders may lose the chance of being recommended for employment in the companies or public service. Generally, it was found that, youth and women associations, vigilante groups, the church, chief priests, communities’
elders and family heads have specific roles in social control across the communities studied.
This result is consistent with Umoh and SPDC (2017).
4.9.6: Religion, Customs, Belief Systems and Cultural Heritage Religious traditions
Majority (over 80%) of community members are Christians while traditional religious elements are still making the rounds. As Ijaw ancestral stock, it is crucial to hold in reverence the reminiscence of ancestors and religious traditions. One of the most prominent idols is one of the water spirits called Owuamapu. Most of the members believes that, water spirits are just like humans, they have their accomplishments and imperfections. There is also a belief, that every person had been one of the water spirits before he was born. They pray to water spirits. Each year festivals in honour of the spirits, which can last for a few days. During these celebrations, men wear fancy attires and carved masks, dance to the rhythm of drums and expose the impact of the water spirits through the mood and energy of their dancing