Abubakar (1998) stated that the importance and function of occupation to the life of individual and society in general, account for the much impetus given by scholars in studying and formulating theories of vocational choice. The theories are actually from different theoretical background, resulting in so many divergent and convergent ideas and propositions. Among them are the followings:
a. Huppock Composite Theory:
The core of this theory is that occupations are chosen to meet the need of individual. This need may be psychological, physical or intellectual perceived, or may be vaguely felt as attraction that draws us in certain direction, thus influencing choices of career. He postulated ten theorems which he felt are fundamental in choice of occupation, among which are: As career development progresses so does choice
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improve and we become more aware of how a prospective job can help to meet our needs, while information about ourselves and about occupations help us to discover occupation that meet our needs. And job satisfaction depends upon the extent to which the jobs we undertake or choose meet our needs. Then occupational choice is always subject to change when we believe that a change will better meet our needs.
b. Holland Typological theory of Vocational Choice The central focus of Holland’s theory is that people choose occupations in environments that are congruent with their personality dispositions. He categorizes people into six personality types corresponding with six environments, these are:
realistic personality/environment, artistic, investigative, social, enterprising and conventional personality types and environmental conditions. According to him, an individual who is about to choose an occupation seeks out an environment most conducive to his personality attribute, based on the image he builds about himself and occupations. Therefore members of the same occupation have similar personalities and they will respond to many situation and problems in similar ways. He described the characteristic attributes and qualities of the six models and came out with (720) personality patterns. He maintained that personal and occupational satisfaction, ability and achievement are enhanced when an individual enters an occupation in the appropriate environment.
c. Roe’s Need Theory of Occupational Choice
He postulated that there are some primary unconscious needs of individuals which should be satisfied during the early years, so as to facilitate proper career development and vocational choice in adult life. According to him the basic human needs are: physiological needs, need for safety and security, need for self esteem, need for self-actualization. Maslow (1954) added need for knowledge and need for beauty
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and they are hierarchical in nature. Roe explained that, those primary needs which are not satisfied in early childhood by parents, become later in life, a strong motivating factor, which drive a person into developing some unique interests, attitudes and also make one to engage in various activities in order to satisfy these needs. It follows therefore that the desire to satisfy those needs determine the type of career a person chooses.
d. Ginzberg and Associate’s Theory of Vocational Choice
Ginzberg, Hatt, Axelred and Herman (1951) conducted their study on developmental events that influences vocational choice. Although the total sample used in the study was quite small and cannot be considered representative of the general population, their finding was quite relative. They discovered some important variables that influence vocational choice as: reality factors, educational process, emotional factors and personal values. They also postulated the life stage concept of vocational development, in which they consider vocational choice process as covering three principal periods, namely: fantasy (4 – 12years) tentative (13 – 18 years) and realistic periods (19 – 21 years). According to them the whole process from fantasy to realistic period consists of series of compromise between wishes and opportunities in the choice of occupation. In addition the process is irreversible and consists of clear out periods that vary considerably from person to person, this result in people choosing different careers. However, the whole process involves compromise, substitution, and optimization. Thus there is a kind of dynamic, continuing adjustment and readjustment, in attempt to co-ordinate changing desire with changing circumstance so as to get favourable result.
57 e. Super’s Theory of Vocational Choice
His theoretical frameworks were written in response to the theory of Ginzberg and associates. He maintained that vocational development rests greatly on life stages as follows: (1)- growth (fantasy 4 – 10 years; interest 11 – 12 years, capacity 13 -14 years (2) Exploration: (tentative 15 -17 years; trial 22 -24 years) (3) Establishment: (trial 25 – 30 years; stabilization 31 – 44 years) (4) maintenance: (44 – 64 years) (5) decline:
(declaration 65 -70 years, retirement 70 years and above.
He later combined the idea of three model theory namely:- life-stage, life space.
And life style approach to career and development to show how various roles played in various aspect of life interact to map out life career of people. He formulated ten propositions, and capitalized that the choice of career and satisfaction depend solely on the degree to which the career permits the use of characteristics and values in a way that is compatible with the mental image held of self. He also postulates that each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities, interest and personality traits, with tolerance wide enough to allow some varieties of occupation for each individual.
And that the vocational preferences, competences and situations in which people work, and self-concept all changes with time and experience thus making choices and adjustments in occupational process.
f. Tiedeman and Ohara’s Theory
Just like their predecessors they also consider the process of career development as spanning most of the individual’s life time. They emphasized on the relationship between personality and career as it is developed in the process of making career choice. They used the term ‘Ego Identity’ to refer to the personal meanings, values and relationship on which the individual builds broader integration with society. This ego
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identity is formed through interaction of three factors namely: the individual’s biological constitutions, psychological makeup; and the society or subculture in which one lives. According to them, the decisions made by individuals regarding school, work, daily activities and other facet of total life form and also structure vocational development. Each decision includes two periods each with sub stages. These are:
(1) Anticipation (a). Exploration (b). Crystallization (c). Choice (d). Specification.
(2) Period of implementation and adjustment (a). Induction (b). Transition
(c). Maintenance Unlike their predecessors, Tiedman and Ohara,(1963) see the movement from one stage to another as a reversible process, such that a person can move in either direction at any given moment, such that both advancement and retreat occur in decision making process. But usually advancement dominates so that a person moves ultimately from indecision, to choice, and to action. To sum up, Tiedman and Ohara viewed vocational development as a summation of a complex series of decision made by individuals over a considerable span of time with each previous decision having effect on later choices. And that not all decisions occur longitudinally or sequentially. Thus a person can be at several different stages of choice on related aspect of life. From the above discussions, it could be gathered that several positions have actually been proposed from several different perspectives. Some are based on specific personality theories; others focus on human development throughout life time, while some are concerned with specific period. Due to differences in the approaches, none of theories could be considered sufficient and wholly embracing but rather there is a need to comprehend and converge the ideas in order to yield to intellectual progress.
59 g. Developmental Theory:
The major proponents of this theory were Ginzberg, Hatt, Axelred and Herman (1951) they based their theory on the assumption that an individual reaches his ultimate decision about a certain occupation through a series of related developmental stages over a period of time. They said that “occupational choice is a process that is largely irreversible and compromise is an essential aspect of every choice” (Adams 1965). They believe that in making appropriate choice the individual must measure his opportunities and the limitations of the environment and access the extent to which they will contribute to his securing maximum satisfaction in work and life, they advocated that the span of occupational choice takes place between 8 and 21 years and the process of decision making can be analyzed in three stages: Fantasy, tentative and realistic.
I. The fantasy stage starts from 8 to 10 years. At this stage, the child makes an arbitrary translation of his impulses, starts to show interest in a particular occupation. The child believes that he can become whatever he wants to be based on dreams of make believe plays. As Crites put it “the child’s vocational choice is largely a product of fantasies day-dreams and the desire to grow up”.
II. The tentative period starts from about 11 to 18 years. During this stage an individual translate his vocational plans in terms of subjective factor, for instance, to gain approval of friends and parents. By now these individual have not incorporated the reality factor but rely almost exclusively on their interest, capacities and values.
III. This is the reality stage. During this period (from 18 years to adult hood) the child realizes that he cannot do whatever he wishes but he must seek a compromise between interest, capacities, values, opportunities and limitations of
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the environment, the individual first explores all possible alternative and finally crystallizes his plans into specific choice.
This theory is therefore, saying that the individuals' occupational decision making become more and more realistic as he become mature in age. This stage by stage analysis provides the vocational counsellor with battle norms as establishing whether the individual is approaching his occupational choice as befits his maturity.
This theory will help to identify students who encounter difficulties with this developmental process and the type of help needed in each stage.