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DEVELOPMENT AND UTILISATION OF AN INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMME FOR IMPACTING COMPETENCE IN LANGUAGE OF GRAPHICS ORIENTATION
(LOGO) AT PRIMARY SCHOOL LEVEL IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
BY
Adetunmbi Laolu AKINYEMI
N.C.E (Business Computer Education) The Polytechnic Ibadan, Ibadan, B.Ed (Early Childhood Education) University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
M.Ed (Educational Technology) University of Ibadan
Matric No: 85830
A Thesis in the Department of Teacher Education, Submitted to the Faculty of Education
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
June, 2013
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
ii ABSTRACT
Computers enhance the process of understanding when used for teaching and learning. This made the Nigerian Government to introduce computer studies into the basic education curriculum. However, the content and activities in the computer basic curriculum are centred mostly around browsing and clicking and not on programming as many believed that programming is for adults. This study, therefore, developed a Language of Graphics Orientation (LOGO) instructional package and investigated its impact on primary school pupils’ competence in LOGO. It also examined the influence of age, gender, computer literacy and school type on competence in the programme.
The study adopted one group pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design. A 20-module instructional package was developed based on Kerr’s model of curriculum development. Three hundred and forty- nine pupils aged 5, 6, 7 and 8years and eight computer studies teachers purposively drawn from two private and two public primary schools participated in the study. Five instruments were used:
Achievement Test in LOGO (r =0.70), Teachers’ Perception Scale on LOGO, (r = 0.89), Challenges of Package Usage Scale (r =0.72), Utilization Scale for Package (r = 0.75) and Computer Literacy Scale (r = 0.75). Five research questions were answered and five hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, t-test and analysis of variance.
The LOGO instructional package was validated in a pilot study; results showed that the package had a good face and content validity which was measured in terms of coverage, sequence and appropriateness for the pupils as perceived by their teachers. Teachers’ perception during the process of development in terms of conceptualisation was 0.8, identification of basic objectives 0.7, designing of package 0.7, try-out 0.7, revision 0.7 and teacher training 0.7. The instructional package was appropriate for pupils’ age 1.0, presentation of illustrations 0.9 and content sequence 1.0. The difference in the pupils’ pretest (x = 4.10) and posttest (x = 27.88) competence mean scores in LOGO was significant (t = 53.56; df = 348; p <0.05). There was significant effect of age on pupils competence in LOGO (F(3,345) = 45.94 p 0.05). Pupils aged 8years had highest mean competence score (x = 34.20) followed by those of age 7 (x =29.71), 6 (x = 26.96) and 5 (x = 20.53). There was no significant effect of gender on pupils’ competence. Furthermore, there was significant effect of computer literacy on pupils’ competence (t=8.26 df= 347 p 0.05) in favour of pupils with high level of computer literacy (x = 31.54). There was significant effect of school type on pupils’ competence (t
= 8.13 df = 347 p 0.05) with private school pupils obtaining higher mean score (x = 31.56) than public school pupils (x = 24.38).
The developed Language of Graphics Orientation instructional package enhanced the competence of primary school pupils in computer programming irrespective of age, computer literacy level and
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school type. It is therefore recommended that LOGO should be included in computer studies curriculum for primary schools as from age six.
Key words: Computer literacy, Instructional Programme, Development and Utilization of LOGO
Word count: 490
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CERTIFICATION
I certify that this work was carried out by Adetunmbi Laolu AKINYEMI in the Department of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan.
………..
SUPERVISOR Dr. Ayotola Aremu
B. Sc. Electrical & Electronics Engr. (Ife) PGDE, M.Ed, Ph.D (Ibadan)
Associate Professor
Department of Teacher Education University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
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DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty, the Beginning and the End, who, through His awe- inspiring grace and mercies saw me through the entire work – to Him is the GLORY, HONOUR AND PRAISE. THANK YOU LORD.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge the Creator and source of all Wisdom, Yahweh, my God, in whom I trust.
I sincerely express my appreciation and gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Ayotola Aremu, who accepted me as one of her students and provided timely wisdom and support in my research journey. Her wealth of experience contributed greatly to the success of this work. I am honoured to have had the opportunity to work so closely with her. I also, wish to thank her for her prayers and words of encouragement. May the good Lord continue to prosper her ways, Amen. Many thanks go to the present Head of Department of Teacher Education, Prof. F. A.
Adesoji, for his candid opinion and advice on how to make the work better.
My gratitude goes to Prof. A. Raji, Prof. A. Abimbade, Dr.(Mrs.) A.M. Olagunju, Dr.
Segun Akinbote, Dr. B.O. Lawal, Prof. C.O.O Kolawole, Dr. S. Ajiboye, Dr.(Mrs.) E.A.
Oduolowu, Dr. F.O Ezeokoli, Dr. Gbenga Adewale, Dr.(Mrs.) Adedoja, Dr. B.O. Ogunleye, Dr.
P.A. Amosun, Dr. J. O. Adeleke, Dr. A. Tella for their encouragement, advice, love and warmth during the course of my study. I also wish to thank all the administrative staff of the Department of Teacher Education for their support during my study. I equally thank Dr. I. A. Alade, Dr.
(Mrs.) Tokunbo Olutayo and Mr. Isreal Olasunkanmi who were always ready to give their suggestions and assistance each time I called on them.
I express my deep gratitude to the pupils, teachers and those who agreed to participate in this research, for the time they expended and for the courage in sharing their insights with me.
May the product of our collaboration benefit each one as much as I have benefited from the process. I acknowledge the staff of State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB) for their support which made this research project possible.
I have also gained insight from my colleagues, like Dr. D. Morakinyo, Mr. Abidoye, Mr.
Bidemi Oguntunde, Mrs. Tolu Lottu and many others too numerous to mention for their support, prayers and love during the course of the programme. Their different perspectives complemented my own.
My special thanks go to my parents (Prince & Mrs. E. A. Onibokun), my father-in-law (Mr. J. Akinyemi) and to all my sisters and their spouses for their physical and spiritual support
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throughout the duration of this programme. At times, my studies were carried out at a great cost to those closest to me. I thank my family for their prayers, understanding and support.
Finally, I am indebted to my darling husband – Dr. Sunday Oluseyi Solomon Akinyemi for allowing me to pursue this programme, he persevered, knowing that I could indeed bring this thesis to completion. He demonstrated his full commitment through prayers, moral and financial support. God bless you. To my darling daughter, Oluwadarasimi, whom I used as a case study for this work, thank you very much for your prayers, understanding and tolerance throughout the period of the programme. Also to Toyin, thank you for always being there for me when I was not around. I appreciate and will always appreciate you all for what you have contributed to the success of this work.
I am also grateful to my pastors, leaders and members of my church, New Covenant Church, U.I. Road, Ibadan for their prayers, support and encouragement all through the programme. I am also grateful to all persons who contributed in one way or the other to the completion of the programme but could not be mentioned here. I pray that God will not forget your labour of love. THANK YOU ALL.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title page i
Abstract ii
Certification iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgement vi
Table of contents viii
List of tables xii
List of figures xiii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study 2 1.2 Statement of the problem 10 1.3 Research questions 11 1.4 Hypotheses 11
1.5 Scope of the study 12
1.6 Significance of the study 12
1.7 Operational definitions of terms 13
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Theoretical framework 14
2.1.1 Behaviourist learning theories 14
2.1.2 Piaget’s learning theory 17
2.2 ICT in Education 23
2.3. ICT competences 28
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2.4 Gender and ICT 31
2.5 Adoption and integration of Information and
Communication Technology into teaching and learning 34 2.6 Teacher perceptions of ICT in teaching and learning 38
2.7 The computer and young children 40
2.8 Problems and prospects of ICT in education 42 2.9 Historical Background of LOGO Programming Language 45
2.10 Age and competence skills in LOGO 48
2.11 Gender and competence skills in LOGO 53
2.12 Influence of school type in ICT competence skills 57 2.14 Computer literacy and competence skills in LOGO 61
2.15 Appraisal of the literature Reviewed 63
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.0 Research design 66
3.1 Procedure for phase 1 66
3.2 Procedure for phase II 67
3.3 Variables in the study 67
3.4 Measures of competence in LOGO 68
3.5 Selection of participants 68
3.6 Research instruments 68
3.6.1 Instructional Guide on LOGO Instructional Package (IGLIP) 68 3.6.2 LOGO Achievement Test (LAT) 68 3.6.3 Teachers’ Perception Scale of the LOGO Instructional Language (TPSLIP) 69 3.6.4 Challenges of LOGO Instructional Package Usage (CLIPU) 69 3.6.5 Appropriateness and Utilisation Scale for LOGO Instructional
Package (AUSDLPLP) 69
3.6.6 Computer Literacy Scale (CLS) 70
3.7 Validation of Instruments 70
3.7.1 Validation of IGLIP 70
3.7.2 Validation of LAT 70
3.7.3 Validation of TPSLIP 70
3.7.4 Validation of CLS 70
3.7.5 Validation of CLIPU 70
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3.7.6 Validation of AUSDLIP 71
3.8 Procedure for the study 71
3.8.1 Phase one 71
3.8.1.1 Step 1: Conceptualization 71
3.8.1.2 Step 2: Identification of LOGO Instructional Package basic objectives 71 3.8.1.3 Step 3: Designing the content knowledge and the whole package 72
3.8.1.4 Step 4: Try-out stage and evaluation 72
Step 5: Revision stage 72
3.8.1.6 Step 6: Teacher Preparation/Training 72
3.8.2 Phase two 72
3.8.2.1 Training of teachers 73
3.8.2.2 Administration of prettest 73
3.8.2.3 Administration of the LOGO package 73
3.8.2.4 Administration of posttest 73
3.9 Method of data analysis 73
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.1 Research question one 74
4.2 Research question two 75
4.3 Research question three(a) 76
4.4 Research question three(b) 77
4.4 Research question three (c) 78
4.5 Research question 4 79
4.5 Research Question 5 81
4.6 Hypothesis one 84
4.7 Hypothesis two 85
4.8 Hypothesis three 86
4.9 Hypothesis four 87
4.10 Hypothesis five 87
4.11 Summary of findings 88
5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Discussion 90
5.1 Perceptions of teachers on the use of LOGO software package 90 5.2 Some challenges in the use of LOGO Programming Language Package 91
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5.3 Appropriateness of the Instructional Package for Pupils’ Age Level 93 5.4 Appropriateness of the presentation of illustration and content sequence 94 5.5 Public school pupils’ competence in the modules by age 94 5.6 Private school pupils’ competence in the modules by age 97 5.7 Pupils’ competence in LOGO Programming Language before
and after exposure to the LOGO Instructional Package 99
5.8 CONCLUSION 102
5.9 Recommendations 103
5.10 Contributions to knowledge 104
5.11 Suggestions for further studies 105
References 106
Appendix 138
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Perception of Teachers on the use of the LOGO Instructional
Package (LIP) in Nursery and Primary schools 74 Table 4.2: Challenges in the use of LOGO Instructional Package 75 Table 4.3: Appropriateness of the Instructional Package for Pupil’s Age 76 Table 4.4: Appropriateness of the Instructional Package in the Presentation
of illustrations 77
Table 4.5: Appropriateness of the Instructional Package in the Content Sequence 78 Table 4.6: Pairwise t-test Comparison of Pretest and Posttest Competence
of Pupils in LPL 84
Table 4.7: Descriptive Table for Pupils’ Mean Score by Age 85 Table 4.8: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Table for Competence by Age 86 Table 4.9: T-test of Male and Female Pupils’ Competence in LPL 86 Table 4.10: Independent t-test of Competence of Pupils’ with low
and high computer literacy 87
Table 4.11: t-test of Private and Public School Pupils competence in LPL 88
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: A simplified Version of Kerr’s Model of Curriculum Design 66 Figure 2: Means Scores of Public School Pupils in LOGO Competence 79 Figure 3: Means Scores of Public School Pupils in LOGO Competence 80 Figure 4: Mean Scores of Private School Pupils in LOGO Competence 81 Figure 5: Mean Scores of Private School Pupils in LOGO Competence 82
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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study
Primary Education, which prepares children in fundamental skills and knowledge areas, can be described as the early stages of formal or organized education where it is important to lay solid and strong foundation for children prior to secondary education. It is believe to be the most important level of education because it is the foundation to all other levels of education. Primary school is the place where the child acquires the fundamental knowledge, skills, thoughts, feelings and actions which are considered necessary for all citizens regardless of social status, vocation or gender (Orukotan and Oladipo, 1994). This level of education does not only serve as the bedrock of subsequent levels of education but it is also regarded as the gateway to all higher levels of education that produce scientists, teachers, doctors, engineers and other highly skilled professionals that every country requires (Bruns et al., 2003).
The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) defines primary education as the education given in an educational institution to children aged 6 to 11+ years. The policy highlights the necessary objectives in the education system, which includes:
(i) the laying of a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking;
(ii) giving the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will enable him to function effectively in the society within the limits of his capacity;
(iii) providing basic tools for further educational advancement, including preparation for trades and crafts of the locality (Section 4, Subsection 18 p. 14).
In order to achieve the above, the document, in section 4, subsection 19d suggests practical, exploratory and experimental methods of teaching and learning for Nigerian primary schools. In view of this, the Federal Ministry of Education, with the intention of improving the quality of education and facilitating national development, set up a committee
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in 1988 to ensure the implementation of computer literacy at the national level. One of the recommendations of that committee was that computer literacy should be introduced to teachers and students at all levels of education system (Idowu et al., 2004).
In recent times, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have revolutionized pedagogical methods and expanded access to quality education (World Bank, 2002). ICT is a set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store and manage information. ICT includes computers (desktop, laptop, and handheld computers); digital cameras; creativity and communication software and tools; the Internet; telephones, fax machines, mobile telephones, tape recorders, interactive stories, simulated environments and computer games, programmable toys and ―control‖
technologies, video-conferencing technologies and closed-circuit television, data projectors, electronic whiteboards and more (Bolstad, 2004).
ICT has become a transformational tool and is having a revolutionary impact on how the world is perceived and how we live in it (Vincent 2001; Agbatogun, 2010). According to Abimbade et al. (2003), the impact of technology worldwide has led to the globalization of information, communication and technology. In some countries, ICT is at the centre of educational reform efforts that involve its use in coordination, with changes in curriculum, teacher training, pedagogy and assessment (Kozma, 2005). Countries like Singapore (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2000), Norway (Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs, Norway, 2000) and Chile (Ministerio de Education, Republica de Chile, 1998) have taken the position that the integration of ICT into classrooms and curricula can improve educational systems and prepare students for the 21st century learning society. In current classroom applications, ICT serves the following purposes: it helps pupils to acquire confidence and pleasure in using new technologies, it makes pupils become familiar with some everyday ICT applications, and to be able to evaluate the technology‘s potential and limitations; it also assist in enriching and extending learning throughout the curriculum by supporting collaborative learning and independent study, moreover, it enables pupils to work at a more demanding level by averting boring, time-consuming, routine tasks (Drossos and Kiridis, 2000).
Computers, which are integral part of ICT, motivate young children and contribute to their cognitive and social development (NAEYC, 1996). Some experts in the field of
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education agree that when properly used, computers hold great promise to improve teaching and learning, in addition to shaping workforce opportunities (Aduwa-Ogbiegbaen and Iyamu, 2005). Despite widespread claims about computer potential to benefit education (Harrison et al., 2002; Cox., 2003; Somekh et al., 2006), it has made comparatively little impact on teaching and learning in schools (Reynolds., 2003; Jamieson., 2006). Research on young children and technology has moved beyond simple questions to considering the implications of these changing perspectives on the use of technology in early childhood education. What teachers need to understand is how best to aid learning, what types of learning they should facilitate, what type of tools are appropriate or beneficial to allow children reap the greatest benefits from using computer and how they could serve the needs of diverse populations.
To tackle these, there is the need to acquaint the children with learning tools such as computer software. This would assist them in designing packages for solving problems they might face in future. The software must be developmentally appropriate, that is, consistent with the way children learn and develop. It must also be found useful as a support to the curriculum designed for the pupils (NAEYC, 1996). Globally, the trend of the evolving nature of knowledge in most careers, disciplines and curricular content absolutely require students‘ development of necessary competence in computer skills and proficiency in computer usage because it is viewed as vital skill for student‘s success in their academic pursuit and professional lives (Duvel and Pate, 2004; Tillman, 2003; Yusuf, 2005).
The use of computer is so prevalent in contemporary world that any educational programme or course of study in the country‘s educational institutions must embrace computers to remain viable (Duruamaku-Dim, 2005). In Nigeria, the Federal Government, recognising the importance of computer education, has made a policy statement to incorporate computer studies into basic education. The objectives of the computer component of the basic education curriculum are to assist the learners to: acquire basic computer skills such as the use of the keyboard, mouse and operating systems; use the computer to facilitate learning electronically and to develop a reasonable level of competence in ICT applications that will engender entrepreneurial skills (NERDC, 2007).
According to NERDC (2007), the curriculum is learner-centred, thematic and activity- based. Emphasis is on the development of learners‘ usage and appreciation of the applications of the computer and emerging technology in everyday life. For these reasons, it
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is expected that pupils should be able to identify the various parts of the computer, use and apply software (word processing), communicate (send and receive messages) and other activities, such as playing games and music and watching educational films. It is also expected that pupils should be able to set up and boot a computer system. From the foregoing, it is clear that the curriculum was designed with good intention. It was designed to make pupils aware of the capability of computers and give them the skills to manipulate them. However, while specific technical skills are certainly important for pupils to learn, they do not provide adequate foundation for them to transfer and apply the skills at different situations. Pupils may learn isolated skills and tools, but they may still lack an understanding of how those various skills fit together to solve problems and complete tasks. Pupils need to be able to use computers flexibly, creatively and purposefully.
The curriculum prepared by the government for computer studies for basic education in Nigeria shows that programming language is not included in the curriculum. The present trends focus on introducing pupils to a wide range of different applications, such as word processing, spreadsheets, graphics software, and communication packages. While these are important skills, teaching their use often places children in the role of consumers of software programmed by others for them. The main problem is that the creative potential of pupils will not be well-developed compared to their counterparts in the developed nations who have the opportunity of being exposed to fully incorporated programming language curriculum in the latter even young children are introduced to some of the powerful principles involved in learning programming. This may imply that the Nigerian pupils may lack creative development through computer studies. However, the content and activities in the Computer Basic Curriculum is centered mostly around browsing and clicking and not on programming, as many believe that programming is for adults. The latter also may be the reason why there is a dearth of empirical studies on programming among primary school pupils. While it is noticeable that computers have been instrumental in radical educational reform in some countries (Kozma, 2005), they seem to have had little or no effect on teaching and learning strategies in both public and private primary schools in Ibadan. Despite the fact that the Federal Government has made a policy statement to incorporate Computer Studies into basic education, the policy is not yet operational in many public and private primary schools in Ibadan as revealed during a personal visit to some public and private primary schools in Ibadan, Oyo State. This was due to the fact that the computer curriculum had not been
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circulated to many schools as at 2012/2013 academic session. However, some public and private primary schools in Ibadan have started Computer Studies.
The emerging educational institutions as well as the policy statement on computer teaching and learning in Nigeria obviously shows that programming language, which provides an understanding of the functioning of the computer, computer software and enhances the creative potential of pupils, is not included in Computer Studies curriculum.
Thus, the creative potentials of pupils will not be well-exploited in the learning of computer in schools. However, most studies on computer usage among school pupils concentrated on browsing and clicking as contained in the curriculum without focusing on such aspects as programming; pupils are still not playing active roles, which is integral parts of constructive learning (Ormond, 2003).
It is, therefore, necessary to include software that engage learners in activities in Nigerian Primary School Curriculum. There are different types of computer programming for children, such as Alice: developed to encourage girls to write programming; kudo:
RoboMind; Sratch: Language of Graphics Orientation (LOGO). One of the globally accepted programming languages to introduce programming in Nigerian curriculum is the Language of Graphic Orientation (LOGO). LOGO is a child-friendly computer language that was developed by Seymour Papert at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA) in 1968 and was intended to allow small children to use the computer as a learning tool (Papert, 1980; Steketee, 2005). The computer programming language LOGO was developed specially for children (Papert, 1980). Its main difference from other programming languages is that the tool used in LOGO programming is an image of a turtle on the screen, LOGO is based on Papert's (1980) learning theory. According to him, learning is most effective in an open, unstructured environment. With discovery learning, children learn problem-solving skills in an open LOGO-learning environment. The most enthusiastic advocate of LOGO, Papert (1980), puts forward three arguments for using LOGO with children.
First, he argued that Turtle Graphic provide an ideal bridge between the abstract world of mathematics and the concrete world of reality. By writing instructions to control the Turtle, children are required to use complex mathematics in a context where they can see the immediate point of what they are doing. They are, thus, less likely to develop the fear and suspicion of mathematics that characterizes many adult today. Secondly, he claimed that LOGO teaches an approach to planning and problem-solving that may be generalised to other
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areas of learning. In order to produce a drawing or pattern, children must first plan what they want to do, breaking the problem down into more familiar elements. They must then put their program into operation, noting whether the Turtle does what they wanted it to do. If it does not, they must then start a process of debugging, or checking the program against the original plan. This process not only teaches children a healthy approach to solving problems, but also makes them see mistakes or errors as further problems to be overcome. Thirdly, his argument was that LOGO embodies an approach to the computers which is very different from most other forms of computer-aided learning. He contrasts LOGO with 'drill-and- practice' programs in which the child mechanically works through problems set by the computer, and argued strongly for the open-ended discovery-learning which LOGO encourages. "Let the child control the computer, not the computer controlling the child‖ is Papert's message. This is an encouraging message for those concerned that computers will have a rigidifying effect on children's thinking.
Of all the application of the computer to education, none has generated as much excitement as computer programming, especially LOGO which is a language for learning that encourages students to explore, to learn and to think. Most children who use computers are not programmers. Yet many would like to create their own software, and to customize the software that they have. Typically, they would like to create programs that are similar to the ones that they use, such as games and educational simulations, which are highly interactive and graphically rich. But there are no suitable tools for this kind of programming task that are easy enough for beginners to pick up and use. The powerful programming environments used by commercial software developers are clearly inappropriate for beginners because they are very complex and assume that the user has extensive programming expertise. Other tools designed for beginners are effective only in limited domains, such as Visual Basic for creating applications that are based on forms and dialog boxes, or spreadsheets for tabular numeric applications.
LOGO is designed to have a "low threshold and no ceiling": It is accessible to everyone, including young children, and also supports complex explorations and sophisticated projects by experienced users. LOGO seems to be the right tool to teach the process of learning and thinking. Papert combined his scientific skills with Piaget‘s theories on how children think and learn to create a software program that enables children to use programming language (Torgerson, 1984). Maddux and Rhoda (1984) aver that LOGO is
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different from other programming languages because it can be used with very little knowledge of computer language. LOGO comes in many different forms, of which the most widely known is Turtle Graphics. With Turtle Graphics, the child uses LOGO to control the movements of a device known as the Turtle. The turtle can be either a small-wheeled robot which crawls around on the floor, or a simulated Turtle on a computer screen. Both types of Turtle have pens which can leave a trail behind them. The child can thus instruct the Turtle to move around its environment in a particular way, and in so doing will produce a drawing or pattern. Only a five or ten-minute presentation is required to introduce the four basic commands for turtle movement. The commands are used to create and manipulate graphics, geometrical shapes, and designs; the purpose of LOGO is not, of course, merely to provide children with a high technology device for drawing and making designs. Rather, its value lies in the ways it requires them to think if they are to achieve their objectives (Papert, 1980).
The turtle‘s distance and angle are determined by the numerical inputs placed after the directions commands. In the immediate mode, children learn to create designs, drawing, and geometrical figures instantly. The child types the command and presses the enter key which moves the turtle. Once the student has mastered the immediate mode, he/she can advance to the next level, which is the program mode. In the program mode, the commands are no longer carried out individually. A series of commands are written, then, the enter key is pressed and the command program is executed on the monitor. LOGO provides immediate feedback, which allows students to correct and learn from their errors, and to exercise their self-correcting and problem- solving skill. LOGO provides students with a variety of learning strategies. Students with short attention spans can benefit from LOGO because they can work at their own pace. According to Emihovich and Miller (1988), LOGO can also help children acquire meta-cognitive skills, that is, children reflect upon their thinking;
improved problem-solving ability and mathematics ideas; enhanced spatial orientation and ability, especially regarding shape and angle awareness; and fluency with the technology such that they learn to master the technological environment and become not just consumers but creators of new technologies (Clements and Nastasi, 1999; Resnick, 2001; Clements and Samara, 2002). Planning the turtle‘s movements provides students with experience in how they think and learn. This higher-level thought process applied to a concrete object teaches them content, thinking styles, and behaviours needed for academic success. There is substantial evidence that young children can learn LOGO and can transfer their knowledge to
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other areas, such as reading, communication, mathematics, map-reading tasks and interpreting right and left rotation of objects (Vaidya, and McKeeby, 1985; Clements 2002).
Furthermore, the knowledge and concepts the children encounter during their interactions with the computer are transferable to their everyday experiences (Vaidya and McKeeby, 1984). In a rapidly changing world, LOGO has the potential to accelerate, enrich, and deepen skills, to motivate and engage students, to help relate school experience to work practices, create economic viability for tomorrow‘s workers, as well as strengthen teaching and help schools change.
The integration of Computer Studies into the educational sector has created a lot of social stereotypic factors among scholars of ICTs, one of which is gender. Computer-related activities have been viewed as a male-dominated work for some time now (Markauskaite, 2006). Studies have shown that boys are more aggressive users of computers than girls (Sanders, 1984); software is developed with male students in mind (Schubert, 2005) and girls tend to identify computing as a male activity (Bayhan and Sipal, 2008). Many scholars also found that girls have a less positive computer attitude than boys (Makrakis and Sawada, 1996; Volman, 1997; Huber and Schofield, 1998). However, differences are not so great in younger pupils (Durndell et al., 1995; Combe et al., 1997). There are also indications that girls achieve less than boys in computer tasks (Barbieri and Light, 1992). Differences in attitude between boys and girls are most common in the aspects of ―confidence in working with computer‖ and ―plans to work with computer in the future‖ (Volman, 2005). Studies on gender differences can be misleading without reference to age (Morri et al., 2005). Studies have revealed that 5-year-old pupils who have been exposed to the computer under various circumstances score higher on logical thinking tasks than children who have not been exposed to LOGO (Delgelman, 1986; Emihovich and Miller, 1988). According to Gillespie and Beisser (2001), LOGO Programming Language can be developmentally appropriate for children in Piaget‘s pre-operational stage, that is, 2 to 7 year-old children because, at this stage, children begin to represent the world with words, images and drawings. It is important to find out the age level at which to introduce Programming Language to Nigerian pupils in order to help them acquire new knowledge. The increasing interest and performance of pupils in many ICT-related studies have been attributed to the type of schools (private or public) such pupils attend.
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This has been a subject of debate among educators (Corten and Dronkers, 2006).
Generally, it has been observed that pupils in private schools perform better than their counterparts in public schools. Etsey et al., (2005), in a study of 60 schools from peri-urban (29 schools) and rural (31 schools) areas in Ghana, found that academic performance was better in private schools than public schools because of more effective supervision of work.
Factors such as school type have also been speculated to influence technology use. Studies have shown that variations in ratings existed as a result of the types of school (Fuchs and Wossmann, 2004; Altonji, 2005).
While it is true that all the factors discussed above may or may not influence the use of computer among pupils, it may also be noteworthy to understand that one of the recurring themes in the under-utilization of ICT-related tasks is lack of relevant competencies.
Computer literacy is .defined as the ability to make use of computer system for word processing, analyse data, develop small computer programmes, browse the Internet and install software (Idowu et al., 2004; Hall, 2005). The primary goal of any use of computers with young children might be considered computer literacy (that is teaching children what computers can do and how to use them). Computer literacy can include teaching children how to use the computer as a tool (a medium with which to calculate, draw or write), as a tutor (to provide instruction), as a tutee (to be programmed), or as a combination of these three (Tella and Mutula, 2008). Therefore, this study investigated whether level of computer literacy affects the competency in LOGO Programming Language. The aim of this work is to give a direction on how to integrate programming language into the Computer studies curriculum in Nigerian primary schools using LOGO. In this study, pupils‘ age, gender, Computer literacy and school type were considered as factors that could predict pupil‘s achievement in LOGO programming language
1.2 Statement of the problem
The introduction of Computer Studies into teaching and learning is a giant stride towards improving the quality of education. As an integral part of the educational system, Computer Studies strengthen the relevance of education to the increasingly digital workplace and raises educational quality at all level. It also offers unique opportunities for learning through exploration, creative problem-solving and self-guided instruction.
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It is against this backdrop that this study developed a LOGO Programming Instructional Package for primary school pupils in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, utilized the same in the teaching-learning process and found the extent to which pupils would be able to accomplish different tasks in LOGO. It also examined the influence of age, gender, computer literacy and school type on pupils‘ competence in LOGO Programming Language.
1.3 Research Questions
This study provided answers to the following questions:
1. What is the perception of teachers on the use of LOGO Instructional Package (LIP) in Nursery and Primary schools?
2. What challenges will Nigerian teachers face in using LOGO Programming Language in the classroom?
3. How appropriate is the Instructional Package for teaching and learning LOGO in terms of
i. Age relevance
ii. Presentation of illustrations iii. Sequence of content
4. At what age do public primary school pupils acquire competence in each of the 20 LOGO Programming Language Package Modules?
5. At what age do private primary school pupils acquire competence in each of the 20 LOGO Programming Language Package Modules?
1.4 Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the pretest and posttest achievement scores of primary school pupils in LOGO Programming Language.
Ho2: There is no significant effect of age on pupils‘ competence in LOGO Programming Language.
Ho3: There is no significant mean difference of male and female pupils‘ achievement in LOGO Programming Language.
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Ho4: There is no significant mean difference in achievement of pupil‘s with levels of computer literacy.
Ho5: There is no significant mean difference of pupils‘ in public and private schools in achievement in LOGO Programming Language.
1.5 Scope of the study
This study covered four groups of pupils from Piaget‘s four stages of cognitive development, that is, two later stages in pre-operational stage (2 to 6 years) and two early stages of concrete operational stage (7–11 years), to be able to find out the right age and to what extent the pupils will be able to accomplish different levels of objectives in LOGO.
This study covered four schools, two public and two private nursery and primary schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria.
1.6 Significance of the study
The package developed from this research would be a tool for teaching and learning programming language at primary school level. It would enable pupils to develop and enhance their creative abilities in LOGO Programming Language upon which higher order thinking skills and creativity can be built upon. In addition, it is also a commercially viable product since there is dearth of information in terms of introducing programming language at the primary level in Nigeria.
The findings provides information on variables such as gender, age, computer literacy and school type as they affect pupils‘ development of the programming skills and how such factors can assist computer software designers in designing and producing software is developmental appropriate. This package will serve as basis for introducing programming in primary schools. Besides, different stakeholders will be motivated to invest in the production of LOGO package. Finally, the finding will provide empirical basis for research in programming language among primary school pupils in Nigeria and serve as a basis for expanding the existing computer curriculum.
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Competence in LOGO: This refers to knowledge of LOGO Programming Language and skill in LOGO for making different designs and complete LOGO activities. Pupils that complete their task at an average level are said to be competent.
Graphics: These are drawings or other non-text designs created on the computer.
Instructional Programme: It is a teaching tool which contains the contents, instructional materials and activities the teacher will follow for LOGO software.
LOGO: This is the acronym for Language of Graphics Orientation, a computer programming language which enables young children to explore concepts and develop ideas through graphics.
Programming: This refers to the process of instructing computer to perform a certain task through the LOGO software.
Turtle: This is a cursor which looks like a triangle. It is controlled using simple commands to draw objects on the screen.
Package: It consist of the instructions which the pupils will follow to make different designs after which there is an activity for the pupils to do.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The relevant studies are reviewed under the following headings: theoretical framework; ICT in education; ICT competences; Gender and ICT; Adoption and integration of information and communication technology into teaching and learning; Teacher perceptions of ICT in teaching and learning; the computer and young children; Problems and prospects of ICT in education; Historical background of LOGO Programming Language;
Age and competence skills in LOGO; Gender and competence skills in LOGO; School type competence skills in LOGO and Computer literacy and competence skills in LOGO;
Appraisal of literature reviewed.
2.1 Theoretical framework
This study is based on behaviourist learning theory and Piaget learning theory. Each of these theories is discussed below.
2.1.1 Behaviourist learning theories
The emphasis of Behaviourism is the observable indicators that show that learning is taking place. Gruender (1996) notes that behaviourism proposes that learning from technologies means using computers for drill and practice, because learning, according to this view, is a matter of imitation and practice. The behaviourists strongly advocate the role of adults in learning as they provide a model by which children learn through imitation. The adults also encourage children to continue using computer technology by providing them with positive reinforcement. However, behaviourism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active learning by doing. It is based on observable changes in behaviour and focuses on a new behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic (Black, 1995).
They carried out different experiments to bring out the relevance of behaviourism in explaining human actions. Skinner (1958) in his study observes that particular reinforcement/punishment patterns were more successful. The principle of intermittent reinforcement states ―that always reinforced behaviour increases rapidly in frequency, but also will extinguish rapidly when rewards cease‖. Conversely, behaviour that is rewarded
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intermittently increases in frequency more slowly, but is more long lasting or resistant to extinction (Alessi, 2001). In assuming that human behaviour is learned, behaviourists also posit that all behaviours can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviours; that is, when a behaviour becomes unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element to this theory of learning is the reward response. The desired response must be rewarded in order for learning to take place (Parkay and Hass, 2000).
John Watson (1878-1958) and Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal originators of behaviourist approaches to learning. Watson claimed that human behaviour result from specific stimuli that elicit certain responses. Watson's basic premise is that conclusions about human development should be based on observation of overt behaviour rather than speculation about subconscious motives or latent cognitive processes (Shaffer, 2000).
Watson's view of learning is based, in part, on the studies of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).
Pavlov was studying the digestive process and the interaction of salivation and stomach function when he realized that reflexes in the autonomic nervous system closely linked these phenomena. To determine whether external stimuli had an effect on this process, Pavlov rang a bell when he gave food to the experimental dogs. He noticed that the dogs salivated shortly before they were given food. He discovered that when the bell was rung at repeated feedings, the sound of the bell alone (a conditioned stimulus) would cause the dogs to salivate (a conditioned response). Pavlov also found that the conditioned reflex was repressed if the stimulus proved "wrong" too frequently; if the bell rang and no food appeared, the dog eventually ceased to salivate at the sound of the bell.
Expanding on Watson's basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning, known as operant conditioning. His model is based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned, while unsatisfying ones are not.
Operant conditioning is the rewarding of part of a desired behaviour or a random act that approaches it. Skinner avers that "the things we call pleasant have an energizing or strengthening effect on our behavior" (Skinner, 1972). Through his research on animals, he concluded that both animals and humans would repeat acts that led to favourable outcomes, and suppress those that produce unfavourable results (Shaffer, 2000). If a rat presses a bar and receives a food pellet, it is likely to press it again. Skinner defines the bar-pressing response as operant, and the food pellet as a reinforcer. Punishers, on the other hand, are consequences that suppress a response and decrease the likelihood that it will occur in the
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future. If the rat had been shocked every time it pressed the bar that behaviour would cease.
Skinner claims that the habits that each of us develops result from our unique operant learning experiences (Shaffer, 2000).
Behaviourist pedagogy aims to promote and modify observable behaviour. It considers learning to be a behaviour that shows acquisition of knowledge or skills.
According to Standridge (2002), among the methods derived from behaviourist theory for practical classroom application are the "classic" Skinnerian behaviourist rules:
Positive reinforcement (reward): A stimulus presented that will increase behaviour, for example giving praise to a student
Negative reinforcement (withdrawal of negative effects): A response that removes something that students find displeasing such as students who regularly turn in homework can skip a graded quiz.
Positive Punishment: for instance, asking a student to stay after class
Negative Punishment: such as remove access to computer after misbehaving
Extinction (non-enforcement): In particular, behaviour that was always reinforced through positive stimili will decrease when it is no longer enforced.
In addition Standridge (2002) adds these: modelling is observational learning by which children learn favourable and unfavorable responses by observing those around them, cueing:
Providing a child with a verbal or non-verbal (beforehand) cue as to the appropriateness of a behavior, contracts: teacher and student agree on (new) behaviour patterns, consequences:
are enacted immediately after a behavior has occurred and re-conditioning by extinction:
Remove a previously introduced stimulus that did not prove to be successful. For example, instead of taking off 1/2 for late homework, don't grade it at all.
Built on top of this reinforcement, punishment and extinction bricks, there are more complex strategies like shaping: the process of gradually changing the quality of a response and behavior modification. Behaviorist theory especially in the classroom can be rewarding for both students and teachers. Behavioural change occurs for a reason; students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and for approval from people they admire. They change behaviours to satisfy the desires they have learned to value. In this study, children of diverse ages that were not acquainted with computer programming were exposed to 20
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modules on LOGO Instructional Package. This theory shows that learning occurs when a correct response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus. The stimulus is the teaching of pupils on how to write computer programs using LOGO instructional package; this stimulus is broken down into definite instructional steps, as each step is performed, the pupils can view graphically the result. Their response, if correct is reinforced by a graphical part which can see. This positive reinforcement encourages them on to the next instructional steps. On the contrariwise, if their response to the stimulus (instructional step) is not correct, the part of the graphic they are trying to construct will not show up. Also, error messages would be displayed. This immediate knowledge of results acting as a reinforcer enables the pupils to adjust their response. These processes go on and on till they arrive at the final graphic. This offer a great deal of user control.
2.1.2 Piaget’s learning theory
Behaviourism as a learning theory is most closely associated with Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist, who spent decades studying and documenting the learning processes of young children. Piaget‘s theory provides a solid framework for understanding children's ways of doing and thinking at different levels of their development. It gives a precious window into what children are generally interested in and capable of at different ages. His idea about human learning is that people are active processors of information. Instead of being passive respondents to environmental conditions, human beings are actively involved in interpreting and learning from the events around them.
Jean Piaget theorized that children are innately gifted, active learners, familiarizing themselves with the world long before they ever realize it (Papert, 1980). Children construct knowledge independently through their experiences with the world (Schetz and Stremmel, 1994). Given this framework, teaching methods with a Piagetian perspective have resulted in the belief that children need direct experiences and active involvement in their world through exploration and play (Schetz and Stremmel, 1994). Piagetian perspective has extended to the use of computers with young children through one of Piaget‘s students, Seymour Papert. In his 1980 book, Mindstorms, Papert argues that computers are a good tool for promoting this kind of active discovery because computers allow children to be in control of their own learning. Despite not being able to physically manipulate a computer, computers do still
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provide direct, meaningful learning experiences that are consistent with Piagetian theory (Clements et al., 1993).
According to Piaget, people interact with their environment through unchanging processes known as assimilation and accommodation. Piaget‘s main interest was in the development of thinking. He believed that cognitive development occurs in distinct stages, with thought processes at each stage building on previous ones. The ability of a child to use symbols and think in an abstract manner increases with each subsequent stage until he is able to manipulate abstract concepts. These four stages are: Sensory motor stage (birth to 2 years); preoperational stage (ages 2 to 6); concrete operational (ages 7 to 11) and formal operational (ages11 to 15).
Bobby (2008) avers that a major contribution of Piagetian theory concerns the developmental stages of children‘s cognition. His work on children‘s quantitative development has provided mathematics educators with crucial insights into how children learn mathematical concepts and ideas. A developmental stage consists of a period of months or years when certain development takes place. Although students are usually grouped by chronological age, their developmental levels (Weinert and Helmke, 1998), as well as the rate at which individual children pass through each stage may differ significantly.
This difference may depend on maturity, experience, culture, and the ability of the child (Papila and Olds, 1996). Berk (1997) asserts that Piaget believed that children develop steadily and gradually throughout the varying stages and that the experiences in one stage form the foundations for movement to the next stage. All people pass through each stage before starting the next one; no one skips any stage. This implies that older children, and even adults, who have not passed through later stages process information in ways that are characteristics of young children at the same developmental stage (Eggen and Kauchak, 2000). Cognitive development results from the interactions that children have with their physical and social environments. The four stages identified earlier are now examined more closely.
Sensori-motor stage
An infant‘s mental and cognitive attributes develop from birth until the appearance of language. This stage is characterized by the progressive acquisition of object permanence, in which the child becomes able to find objects after they have been displaced, even if the objects have been taken out of his field of vision. For example, Piaget‘s experiments at this
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stage include hiding an object under a pillow to see if the baby finds the object. An additional characteristic of children at this stage is their ability to link numbers to objects (Piaget, 1977) (for example, one dog, two cats, three pigs, four hippos). To develop the mathematical capability of a child in this stage, the child‘s ability might be enhanced if he is allowed ample opportunity to act on the environment in unrestricted (but safe) ways in order to start building concepts (Martin, 2000). Evidence suggests that children at the sensorimotor stage have some understanding of the concepts of numbers and counting (Fuson, 1988). The education of children at this stage of development should lay a solid mathematical foundation by providing activities that incorporate counting and thus enhance children‘s conceptual development of number. For example, teachers and parents can help children count their fingers, toys, and candies. Questions such as ―Who has more?‖ or ―Are there enough?‖ could be a part of the daily lives of children as young as two or three years of age. Another activity that could enhance the mathematical development of children at this stage connects mathematics and literature. There is a plethora of children‘s books that embed mathematical content. The child also begins to understand that his or her actions could cause another action, for example, kicking a mobile to make the mobile move. This is an example of goal- directed behavior. Children in the sensorimotor stage can reverse actions, but cannot yet reverse thinking (Woolfolk, 2004). At this age level, the advanced color graphics and sound capabilities of today's microcomputers seem like the ideal tools for creating a most elaborate
"busy-box' for the very young child. Since fascination with colors, changes in shape, sound and patterns are essential elements in the experimental world of children at this stage of development, sensory stimulation by computer may serve the same functions that brightly colored toys and objects hanging over the cribs of infants today serve.
Pre-operational stage
The characteristics of this stage include an increase in language ability (with over- generalizations), symbolic thought, egocentric perspective, and limited logic. In this second stage, children should engage in problem-solving tasks that incorporate available materials such as blocks, sand, and water. While the child is working with a problem, the teacher should elicit conversation from the child. The verbalization of the child, as well as his actions on the materials, gives a basis that permits the teacher to infer the mechanisms of the child‘s thought processes. There is lack of logic at this stage of development; rational thought makes little appearance. The child links together unrelated events, sees objects as possessing
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life, does not understand point-of-view, and cannot reverse operations. For example, a child at this stage who understands that adding four to five yields nine cannot yet perform the reverse operation of taking four from nine. Children‘s perceptions at this stage of development are generally restricted to one aspect or dimension of an object at the expense of the other aspects. For example, Piaget tested the concept of conservation by pouring the same amount of liquid into two similar containers. When the liquid from one container was poured into a third, wider container, the level was lower and the child thought there was less liquid in the third container. Thus the child was using one dimension, height, as the basis for his judgment of another dimension, volume.
Teaching students in this stage of development should employ effective questioning about characterizing objects. For example, when students investigate geometric shapes, a teacher could ask students to group the shapes according to similar characteristics. Questions following the investigation could include, ―How did you decide where each object belonged?
Are there other ways to group these together?‖ Engaging in discussion or interactions with the children may engender the children‘s discovery of the variety of ways to group objects, thus helping them to think about the quantities in novel ways (Thompson, 1990). Although, the abilities of children at this age are limited to the physical, children at this level can begin to learn much from computers, like ages six or seven can easily learn to boot a computer, work a joystick controller, and use a keyboard. At this stage of cognitive development, the computer can become a useful training tool to teach number and letter recognition, color discrimination, sight vocabulary, and some number skills. Since this period covers a wide span of ages, it would not be realistic to think that a two-year-old could accomplish the same tasks as a seven-year-old. These children can have lots of fun drawing swirls and scribbles with the joystick using a relatively simple Basic program. Although this may be more fun than educational, it does stimulate various eye movements, gets children to use their eyes and hands together, and provides an opportunity for attaining mastery over an environment.
Children at the upper range of this developmental period (5 to 7years) can start to learn spelling exercises like Hangman, and game-oriented drill-practice exercises in CAI.
Exercises such as these have often been called fancy flash cards, but this should not be looked at negatively. Both flash cards and the computer provide training for a task that may be boring but necessary (memorization). Some things are best learned by memorization and
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flash cards as well as computer assisted drills. Both provide the practice necessary to learn something by rote.
Concrete operations stage:
The third stage is characterized by remarkable cognitive growth, when children‘s development of language and acquisition of basic skills accelerate dramatically. Children at this stage utilize their senses in order to know; they can now consider two or three dimensions simultaneously instead of successively. For example, in the liquids experiment, if the child notices the lowered level of the liquid, he also notices the dish is wider, seeing both dimensions at the same time.
Additionally, seriation and classification are the two logical operations that develop during this stage (Piaget, 1977) and both are essential for understanding number concepts.
Seriation is the ability to order objects according to increasing or decreasing length, weight, or volume. On the other hand, classification involves grouping objects on the basis of a common characteristic.
Burns and Silbey (2000) note that ―hands-on experiences and multiple ways of representing a mathematical solution can be ways of fostering the development of this cognitive stage‖. The importance of hands-on activities cannot be ignored at this stage. These activities provide students an avenue to make abstract ideas concrete, allowing them to get their hands on mathematical ideas and concepts as useful tools for solving problems because concrete experiences are needed, teachers might use manipulative materials with their students to explore concepts such as place value and arithmetical operations. Existing manipulative materials include: pattern blocks, Cuisenaire rods, algebra tiles, algebra cubes, geoboards, tangrams, counters, dice, and spinners. However, teachers are not limited to commercial materials; they can also use convenient materials in activities such as paper folding and cutting. As students use the materials, they acquire experiences that help lay the foundation for more advanced mathematical thinking. Furthermore, students‘ use of materials helps to build their mathematical confidence by giving them a way to test and confirm their reasoning.
Students in the later elementary years, according to Piaget, learn best through hands- on discovery learning, while working with tangible objects. Reasoning processes also begin to take shape in this stage. Piaget stated that the three basic reasoning skills acquired during this stage were identity, compensation, and reversibility. By this time, the child learns that a
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"person or object remains the same over time" (identity) and one action can cause changes in another (compensation). This child has an understanding of the concept of seriation – ordering objects by certain physical aspects. The child is also able to classify items by focusing on a certain aspect and grouping them accordingly (Woolfolk, 2004). In the later years of this period, children can start to become familiar with some of the Basic language commands, like the PRINT, INPUT, and GOTO statements. At this level, children can learn how to solve simple arithmetic problems using the computer primarily as a calculating tool.
CAI tutorials and practice drills are very easily understood and enjoyed and can be implemented without much help from the classroom teacher or parent since the children now possess adequate reading skills. Using the computer to construct a model or simulation from scratch, and programming with advanced concepts such as conditional and branching statements are still beyond the capabilities of most children at this stage because they lack the sophisticated abstract reasoning ability required.
Formal operations stage
At this stage intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.
Piaget argues that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage (Anderson, 1990). This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required in science and mathematics. Abstract thought emerges during the formal operational stage. Children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages. They begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. Problem-solving is demonstrated when they use trial-and-error to solve problems. The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. During this period children begin to understand and use sarcasm, double-entendre, and metaphor. They can be taught to exploit the computer to its fullest capacity, and are ready for their first real experiences in higher language programming. Simulations can be developed and learning about computers can be facilitated through the understanding of computer architecture. At this level children can create their own computer assisted instruction tools and exercises as well as benefit from drills and tutorials. This is not to say that every 14-year-old can or will be a master programmer, it simply means that, developmentally, children who have achieved the milestones of formal
