MODULE I
THE STUDY OF POLITICS
Syllabus :-
The study of Politics 1. Definitions and nature 2. The Scope
OBJECTIVES
1) To understand the changing meaning, nature and scope of political – science.
2) To understand the various methods of the study of the political – science.
INTRODUCTION
The lesson would enable the student to know the Definitions and Meaning of Political science. The Definitions would reflect the changing understanding of Politics. It is difficult to give a single precise definition of Political Science. It varies from person to person depending upon the importance he gives to various aspects of political life. The study of Political Science began with the Greeks.
DEFINITIONS AND MEANING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Various definitions of Political Science given by the ancient, Medieval and modern political scientists of this subject are as follows
1] Origin :- The term `politics‟, is derived from the Greek word
`Polis‟, which means the city state According to Greek Philosophers, Politics was a subject which dealt with all the activities and affairs of the city state. Their City States were known as `Polis‟. City state was an all inclusive term, as the ancient Greeks made no distinction between the state and the Government on one hand, and State and Society on the other. They never differentiated between personal life and social life. Hence according to them Politics was a total study of man, society, state, morality and so on.
2] Politics as the study of the state:- Traditionally Political science is a science of state. Political thinkers like R.G. Gettel, J.W.
Garner, Bluntschli and many others were of the view that political science was the study of the state.
R.G. Getlel defined “Political Science as a study of state in the past, present and future and of Political institutions and Political theories”. J.W.Garner States, “Political Science begins and ends with the state”
3] Politics as the study of the Government :- Some Political Scientists like Paul Janet, George Catlin, Hans Eulan have accepted the view which states that politics deals with the state and government. Paul Janet writes “Political Science is concerned with the foundations of the state and principles of government. George Catlin states “Politics means either the activities of political life or the study of these activities. And these activities are generally treated as activities of the various organs of government.”
Prof Hans Eulan considers in his definition of politics that the study of formal government is a fundamental concern of politics. The Oxford English Dictionary defines Political Science as “the study of the state and systems of government.”
4] Politics as the study of national Institution :- Bridal expressed the view that “Political Science is, above all, descriptive study which brings together the description of national political institutions, their history, their ideological principles, their working, the forces that direct them, the influence they undergo, the results they obtain and their effect on the life of the country and its relations with neighboring states “.
Traditional Approach :- The concept of Political Science as a study of State, Government and national Institution is not considered adequate today. This aspect of above definitions emphasizes the legal structure only. They do not pay attention to what is happening withing the State. Political Science must include the study of informal structures, facts and reality of Politics. Hence, modern Political thinkers defined Political Science differently and taken modern approach.
5] Political Science as a Study of Power :- Modern Political thinkers like Lasswell, Robert Dahl have defined politics in terms of power, influence, and authority. According to these thinkers Power has acquired prominent position in political thought.
Harold Lasswell considers, “Politics is the study of shaping and sharing Political powers”
Robert A. Dahl defined that, “A Political system is any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves, to a significant extent power, rule or authority.”
According to the view of these thinkers entire political activity directed towards capturing and maintaining power/ “Power” is the central idea in Politics – who get, what when and How”.
6] Political Science as a study of Conflict Resolution :- This view was suggested by Miller in his `Nature of Politics‟. The purpose of a political activity is either to bring about a change or resist a change. People compete with each other to satisfy their needs. When resources are limited and the people who want to utilize them are many conflicts arise. Politics is a means to resolve this conflict.
According to Peter B. Haris “ The Modern emphasis in the study of Politics is laid on disagreements and reconciliation or resolution of these disagreement.
7] Political Science as a Study of Co - relation of many Forces Encyclopedia of Social Sciences States, “Present day political science revolves around the problem of the attainment, consolidation and distribution of political power whether in an actually existing state or a hypothetical state”.
Political Institution and politics can not function in vacuum. Social and economic forces affect the political process. Hence they also must be taken into account.
Analysis and Conclusion :- The several definitions of the term Political Science reflect the changing understanding of the discipline. From above definitions we may say that there are mainly two approaches of looking at Political-Science. 1) Teaditional approach 2) Morden approach. The Traditional Approach suggests that Political-Science is the study of State, Government and National Institutions. It studies the formal, legal structures and theoritical part.
The Modern Approach emphasizes “What is actually happening in the state”. It stressed on reality and actual facts of politics. Thus it studies various forces, processes and informal structures making it dynamic.
However, it can be said that political - Science is a systematic study of the State, Government, Political institutions, Power, influence and authority, Political processes and Political forces.
Table about definitions and meaning of political - science Traditional definitions Modern definitions
1) Origin as a as a study of as a study of 2) as a study of the sate study of power conflict co-relation
and Government resolution of many forces
A) Getlel b) Garner
c) Janet Emphasizes on
d) Catlin Reality and actual
e) Hans Eulan facts of politics
f) Bridal
3) Emphasizes on – Theoritical part legal structure
NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political – Science is a social science. Its nature is different than physical sciences like physics and chemistry. Whenever we study the origin, evolution and development of Political Science; we find various aspects of the nature of Political Science. The definitions and meaning of Political Science shows that it is a systematic study of Political theory, Political Institutions, Political forces and processes. When we call Politics as `Political Science‟, we have to see how far this subject stands to the tests of science in the strict sense of the term. In this unit we discuss the nature of Political – Science as a social science.
1] Is it a Science?
Very often a question is raised whether the discipline of Politics can be regarded as a science? There is no unanimity among Political thinkers whether the subject is a Science.
What is a Science?
“Science is a systematic body of knowledge, the facts of which have been accurately and impartially collected, arranged and classified through the use of various scientific methods of observation, comparison and experimentation”.
Various arguments are forwarded for and against the discipline being a science.
ARGUMENTS THAT IT IS NOT A SCIENCE :-
Political Scientists like Maitland, Burke, Gettel do not think that Politics is really a Science. Their arguments are as follows :-
1] Disagreement in Definition, Terminology and Methods :- There is no general agreement among Political thinkers regarding definition, scope, terminology etc. There is no exactness or precision in the political science, as a result, they cannot be accepted and applied universally. This does not happen in case of natural sciences like physics and chemistry.
2] Lack of Precision :- Principles of Political Science are not precise, clear and they lead to many controversies. Where - as a formula in physics or chemistry is clear and universally accepted.
eg. The laws of gravity or the principles of arithmetic i.e. Two plus two equals four every where. However Political Science like pure and natural sciences such as physics and Mathematics does not possess any such universally relevant principles.
3] Human Beings :- Politics deals with human beings whose minds are unpredictable. Political scientists have to deal with man (human beings) who are not under their control. Human behavior is unpredictable and not always logical. Whereas physics and chemistry deal with matter or inanimate objects (non living objects).
Natural scientist work in laboratories and the objects are perfectly under their control. Hence their rules and laws are absolute, and universal.
4] Limited Experimentation :- Experimentation in laboratory or in an isolated environment is not possible in Politics like natural sciences.
5] Lack of Objectivity :- Political Science lacks objectivity but subjective element is very strong. Political-science is subjective and relative because political scientist has to deal with human beings in relation to society, State, Government etc.
6] Diffcult to Predict Future :- Political phenomena do not follow proper sequence like exact science. At times, the effects are contrary and therefore the results cannot be predicted.
Inspite of the above arguments, the subject is regarded as a science because :-
Arguments that it is a Science :-
1] Political Science is not a pure science but a social Science – Politics is a systematized body of knowledge. Its facts are collected and organized through proper observation, comparison and experimentation, etc. eg. Studies on election. Science is a systematic and formulated knowledge of a specified subject. In that sense Political Science is certainly a science.
2] Political Experiments are not completely ruled out. The government itself is a continuous experiment. The application of Marxist principles in the USSR was one such experiment.
3] Broad Conclusions can be drawn in Political Science eg.
Independent impartial judiciary, free press is essential for democracy.
4] Empirical studies are based on careful observation and classification :- Policial Science puts hypothesis to empirical verification. Theories are not built on speculation. Political Scientists today employ survey methods, graphs, charts etc. to arrive at their research conclusions.
Thus political science is not a pure science, but a social science.
2] Is Politics an Art?
The term `Art‟ refers to the practical application of knowledge.
Political Science applies the knowledge about political events for creating a good social and political order. Hence it is an art.
Robert Dhal States that “Political Science is both – Science and Art. Whenever students of Political Science test their theories against the data of experience by observation, the political analysis can be regarded as scientific. When this political analysis is applied for the working of political institution it is an art”.
3] Politics or Political Science? :-
What should the subject be called Politics or Political Science?
Aristotle called his studies in Political Phenomena as `Politics‟. Prof Laskis work was named as a “Grammer of Politics”. However, most of the modern writers prefer the subject to be called as `Political Science‟ and not as Politics. Because Political Science is a systematic study of Political theory, political institutions, political forces and processes. The term `Politics‟ indicates the current political problems or issues. Many times common people use the term of Politics as a dubious, messy, rotten affairs. `Politics‟ is a wide spread and universal activity and that is analysis in political - science. Study of politics is a part of the study of political Science.
Politics is an activity and that what it analyses as a political science is only a part of it. The term `Politics‟ is not precise to give us whole range of knowledge pertaining to state and other political institutions. There is distinction between a politician and political scientist. A politician is a person who actively participates in the political affairs. Whereas a political scientist is an expert in the subject. He studies the subject systematically. Hence it is preferable the subject be called a `Political Science and not Politics.
Table
Nature of Political Science
1 2 3
Is it a science Is it an art Is it a politics
1 2 It is not a science
1) Disagreement in definitions 2) Lack of precision 3) Deals with human
beings 4) Limited
experiments 5) Lack of objectivity 6) Difficult to predict
It is a science
1) It is a social science 2) Experiments possible 3) Broad conclusion possible 4) Empirical studies
Application
of political theory and philosophy
Politics is only the part of the study of political science
THE SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
The scope of Political-Science means the subject matter or content of Political Science. Various Political thinkers are not in agreement about the exact scope of politics. The lack of precise definition and terminology have created confusion regarding the subject matter of Political Science. Despite the ambiguity and controversy in the field various aspects included in the study of political science are as follows :-
A conference of political thinkers held in Sept 1948 at the UNESCO House decided the scope of Political Science.
1] Political Science is the study of Political theories :- Over the centuries, Political scientists have concerned themselves with formulating political theories and political ideas. e.g., Plato explained theory of Ideal State, Theory of justice, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau explained theory of origin of state. These theories enable us to organize their observations and offer a foundation on which future observations and analysis can be based.
2] Political Institutions :- Study of Political Science includes the study of various constitutions, various systems of government their merits, demits etc. eg. Whether it is parliamentary, presidential, dictatorial, democratic, coalition form of government. Such a study helps us to reform out political institutions in order to realize our goals.
3] Political Parties and Pressure Groups :- It studies the various systems of political parties, their role and importance. Pressure groups and interest groups are becoming more important. Political science studies their role, methods etc. in a given political system.
This makes the study of Political - Science more realistic.
Opposition political parties, pressure groups Non-Governmental organizations (NGOS) do not directly form the government. They indirectly influence governmental policies and decisions. Hence the study of governance (act of governing) is incomplete if it is limited to the study of government.
4] International Relations :- It includes the study of international organization, and policles. States do not live in isolation. Domestic Policy and foreign Policy are interrelated. Hence the study of international relations becomes significant more in the times of globalization.
5] Political Science is the study of the relationship between government and civil society :- The state is comprised of two entities : government and civil society. Both entities influence governance in different ways. Civil society includes citizens, Non- governmental Organization (NGOS), pressure groups, opposition Political parties. Civil society influence governance indirectly, by influencing the government and convincing it to adopt certain policies. Whereas the government possesses the power and authority to influence governance directly. Hence the relationship between government and civil society is an important determinant of governance in the state. Political Science Studies this relationship in order to better understand the nature of the state and the efficacy of governance.
6] It is the study of Power, Authority, Influences, Political activities, Political Processes :- Political Science is normative as well as empirical. Normative approach of Political Science studies norms, ideals, morals, principles, philosophy of Political Science eg.
What should be the nature of the state etc. Empirical approach of political Science observes and analyses political activities and institutions as they are in a scientific way.
6] Morgenthau said scope of Political-Science includes three branches :-
a) Political Sociology b) Political theory c) Political Institutions Modern political Scientists feel that man‟s social life is an integrated whole. Any change in man‟s social environment have repercussions on man‟s political life. The modern state cannot escape from that impact of the social, psychological, economic and cultural forces. According to Leacock Political- Science must not content itself with a mere analysis of Political institutions as existing at any given time, it must take
account of the process of change and evolution, and the alteration of social and intellectual environment.”
7] `Master Science’ :- Aristotle called political science the `Master Science‟ because Politics determines the environment within which every person will organize his life. No one can claim that he has nothing to do with Politics. No one can escape from the parameters set by politics. The ancient Greeks never made any distinction between man‟s personal life and political life. According to them Politics is the total study of man, Society, State, Morality etc.
8] Study of Political system and its environments :- Varied political systems exist and function in different environment.
Political science studies them with reference to the response given and feedback secured. The policies of one system have an impact on the other systems. Also political decisions are not made in vacuums. These are influenced by economic structure, social institutions and the whole environment in which the state functions.
summary table
The Scope of Political – science
meaning of the scope The scope of political-science
1. study of political theories 2. study of political Institutions
3. study of political parties and pressure groups 4. study of international relations
5. study of the relationship between government and civil society
6. study of power, Authority, influences, political activities and political processes.
7. It is a master – science
8. study of political system and its environments.
Importance of the study of political science :-
Man is a social animal, His natural attributes develop when he lives in society. Society consists of many institution, for example, there is the institution of the family as well as religious, educational and financial institutions. Amongst these is an institution called the state. The state came into existence in order to establish peace and security in society. It‟s objective is to fulfil the needs and protect the life and property of its members and create an atmosphere congenial to the development of the human personality, Man became a integral part of the state, In this relationship with the state he came to be known as a citizen, As a citizen every person should know about the state and government, Political – science educates and enlightens the citizens about their liberties, rights and duties,
Such enlightened citizen is extremely important in a democratic set up, Mature population tends to give best of the government.
Aristotle (father of political science) regarded political science as a master science. It means state controls and regulates all other institutions, associations. We all come within the control of the state. Man‟s life is controlled by events that happen in the world.
All important decisions about public life are taken by government.
Political science studies various governments, laws etc. All these are very important as they influence decision making. Political decision affect the entire human life.
QUESTIONS
Define Political Science and examine its nature.
1. Explain the Meaning of Political Science. Is it a Science or an art?
2. Write in details about the scope of Political Science.
2
MODULE II
THE APPROACHES
NORMATIVE, EMPIRICAL AND FEMINIST
Syllabus :-
Main features of normative, Empirical and Feminist approaches.
INTRODUCTION
The study of Political Science can be approached in different ways from different angles and perspectives. The origin of the study of political science can be traced to the Greck Period. Aristotle is regarded as the founder (father) of Political Science. Through the ages, there was much theorisation on affairs of the state and government and by and large the approach was normative. The post first world war period witnessed behavioral revolution. More emphasis was given to the study of political processes and political forces. Thus in the study of political – Science transition happened from traditional Political theory (structure) to modern political analysis (political processes).
In modern world “Power” is the key issue in Politics. Hence processes of acquiring and exercising power got a important place in the study of political-Science. Thus there is a radical transformation in the nature and content of Political Science. The study of Politics has undergone many changes.
It was due to the new approaches and methods applied to the study of political science.
APPROACHES
Approaches mean the different stand – points from which the study or investigation of a political phenomenon may be undertaken.
Meaning - Approaches means the different angles and ways from which the study of political phenomena may be undertaking. It is the way of looking at things. Approach is an outlook. In the study of Political Science a verity of approaches are applied by the Political Scientists, Popular and main approaches are as follows :-
Types -
1] Normative approach
2] Empirical approach and then the Behavioral approach 3] Feminist approach
The main features of these approaches have been examined below:-
1] Normative Approach :-
Normative approach to the study of Politics is known as traditional approach. The works in Political Science from Plato to Karl Mark can be regarded as Traditional Political Science. These thinkers emphasized the study of state and government. They kept in mind cartain norms and values. The method was to begin with cause and reach to the effect. The important features of this approach are as follows.
(1) Idealistic and Prescriptive :-
The emphasis in this approach is on norms and ideals. It does not concern itself with things as they are. It does not adopt a realistic view of political actions, and institutions. Through the ages Political thinkers have focused their ideas and theories on what they perceive to be the ideal for the state. They prescribe cartain forms of conduct rether than describe events or facts. This approach was inclined to ignore “What is” and gave more importance to “What should be”. Therefore it is prescriptive Plato, Hegel and Green are some of the idealist thinkers.
2] Value Oriented approach :-
Normative thinkers emphasized ethical and moral values such as good bad, just, unjust etc. It is a value loaded approach. It was more concerned with setting standards for organizations and governance of society.
3] Optimistic and utopian :-
Normative theories are based on the assumptions. It believes that a better system is possible. Accordingly normative thinkers suggest the ways and means to achieve this better system. In that sense this approach is optimistic. Eg. Plato‟s concept of Ideal State.
4] Institutional formal and Legal approach :-
Normative approach suggests that political – Science is the study of State and government. It studies the formal, Legal Structures of Political system. e. g., Study of the origin of the State, functions of the State, Structure of the government, provisions about the rights etc.
5] dominated by Philosophy and History :-
From Plato, Aristotle (ancient Greek thinkers) to Rousseau used Philosophical deductive method in adopting the normative approach to make political enquiry.
Evaluation of the Normative Approach :-
The normative approach to the study of Politics has its uses as well as its disadvantages.
Critics of normative theories have pointed the following drawbacks in the approach :-
1] Ideas, Theories formulated by philosophers cannot be verified.
Most of the theories are based on assumptions. It has no historical evidence.
2] Too much theoretical :- Political Philosophers more emphasized on philosophical principles than reality of Politics. Hence there is a gap between the normative theorists ideal world and real world.
3] Philosophers have not even reached a universally acceptable definition of the term philosophy.
Advocates of the normative approach listed some advantages of this approach as follows :-
1] Normative principles are a sources of guidance for empirical researchers, and provide their studies with a purpose.
2] Normative theories remind us to seek the good in life such as justice, morals etc.
Table
Normative approach
Features or characteristics Evaluation
Drawbacks Advantages 1 2 3 4 5
Idealistic value utopian formal philosophical and based Legal,
Institutional Institutional
EMPIRICAL APPROACH
The Industrial revolution and other social problems pressed Political Scientists for solution. In the 20th century Political Scientists were unable to find solutions to real life Political problems. At this stage the interest in philosophical speculation declined. In the beginning,
the empirical approach was viewed as a supplement to the normative approach. But after 1940s the empirical approach monopolized the study of Politics. Graham Wallas, Arthur Bentley, Charles Merriam are some empirical thinkers. Grahm Wallas in his book “Human Nature in Politics “ introduced greater realism and psychological dimension in political studies. Arthur Bentley in his book introduced sociological dimension in politics.
The important Features of this approach are as follows :-
1] Modern approach :- Empirical approach emerged in the 20th Century. But empirical tradition can be traced back to the earliest days of Political thought. It can be seen in Aristole‟s (384-22 BC) attempt to classify constitutions, in Machiavelli‟s (1469-1527) realistic account of statecraft and in Montesquieu‟s theory of government and law. In 20th century it monopolized the study of Politics. In that sense it is modern.
2] Stresses Scientific Method :- Empiricists Studied Political Processes using scientific techniques such as survey, research, observation, experiment, measurement etc. eg. A normative approach to electoral studies may philosophize on why people should vote. Where as empirical approach would conduct surveys and interview of voters to find out the actual voting process. The goal of empiricists is to develop a science of Political behavior.
3] Value free :- The empirical approach does not bother with morals, ethics and values. It is a rational approach. It restricts itself to what is and was rather than what ought to be. Empirists draw a line of difference between fact and value. They take value neutral attitude.
4] Inter-disciplinary:- While studying the Political issues empiricists welcome social Sciences like sociology, Psychology and economics. It believes that political behavior of man is only one aspect of his total behavior and so the inter disciplinary Study would help Political analysis. Eg. To study voting behavior of the people we should study one‟s loyalties to caste, religion and political party economic condition require to be examined.
5] Descriptive :- It is descriptive. It means it seeks to analyze and explain where the normative approach is `prescriptive‟ in the sense that it makes judgments and offers recommendations.
6] Emphasis on informal processes of Politics:- In the modern approach, greater emphasis has been put on informal processes of Politics and less on Political institutions in isolation.
7] Realistic :- Empirical theories are realistic. These theories are not based on assumptions but on facts. Eg. A normative
philosopher may believe that an ideal state is one where the Capital Punishment (death penalty) is banned. On the other hand an empirical thinker may produce statistical evidence to prove that countries that practice capital punishment show lower instances of killings than countries where the death penalty is not practiced. The death penalty saves several innocent lives by taking the life of a hardened criminal.
8] The behavioral approach :- Behaviouralism is a further refinement of some aspects of empirical Method. It emphasized to the Study of man‟s Political behavior instead of State. It aimed at,
“the development of a science of the Political process”. Its emphasis on scientific methods. Political-Science was in danger of becoming abstract and remote from reality. Therefore the behavioral approach completely abstains from “armchair”
speculation. It requires the research to be systematic, hypothesis, data, evidence etc. Its theory is subjected to empirical verification.
They identify problems and try to find out solutions.
EVALUATION OF THE EMPIRICAL APPROACH
Criticism :-
1] Critics say that an entirely value free approach is not desirable because civilization would stagnate if political science divorced itself from morality.
2] Although in the initial years the empirical approach generated a lot of excitement amongst Political academics. But now several of these academics are becoming disillusioned with the empirical approach. The main reason for this is that the approach appears to have failed to deliver on its biggest promise to find a solution to world problems.
Advantages of the Empirical approach :-
1] Broadening of Frontiers of Politics :- New Political terms and Phenomena‟s found a place in the study of Politics. Eg. Power, influence, authority, Political behaviour, Political culture etc.
2] Given Scientific Orientation to Politics :- It has made research in Political Science more realistic. Subjects like voting pattern, elections can be more reliably analysed with the help of case analysis, interviewing, observation etc.
3] Made Politics More dynamic :- The empirical approach has enabled political Scientists to take their theories beyond Political institutions. Today Political Scientists focus a lot of attention on the political behavior of individuals, groups.
4] Fulfils the short comings of the old approaches :- It does not neglect the institutional element but tries to approach the institutions in their fullness as they work. Eg. The normative theories gave us the ideal of democracy. Resolving questions such as:- Is a presidential or parliamentary system more conducive to democracy in Indian conditions? What percentage of Indians are casting their vote and how many are doing so freely? Can be achieved only after fact finding by employing empirical techniques.
Table
Empirical Approach
Features or characteristics Evaluation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Modern Scientific value- Inter- Informal Realistic Behavioral free disciplinary
Criticism Advantages Feminist Approach
The feminist approach to the study of politics is a new age development in the evolution of Political Science. The approach emerged with growing awareness of the rights of women.
Evolution of Feminism :-
Feminism as a political force and movement can be divided in three waves :-
1] Women‟s suffrage movements of the 19th and early 20th century.
2] Second wave began in the 1960s. It was concerned with legal and social equality of women. i.e. ending the legal sex discrimination. Right for women to have access and equal opportunity to the workplace.
3] Third wave as the continuation of second wave in 1990s.
concerned about the question of sexuality, reproductive rights.
Growth of different schools of thought on Feminism :-
The French Revolution of 1789 proclaimed to the world the universal concepts Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. That championed the cause of feminism by strongly advocating on
gender equality, empowerment of women and equal rights. This led the growth of different schools of thought on feminism :-
1] Liberal Feminism :- It is an individualistic form of feminism. It asserts gender equality through political and legal reforms. Eg.
Equality before the law.
It focuses on women‟s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices.
2] Marxist Feminism :- It highlights the theoretical relevance of understanding the gender oppression. It emphasized that the tyranny and atrocities over female is a product of the social eco- political order.
3] Social Feminism :- Social feminist trace the root of all oppression in economic factors eg. Exploitation of women in the forms of low wages for the same type of work etc. It also highlights the negative role of institution of family in perpetuation of women‟s oppression and exploitation from their birth till their death in the diverse forms and customs.
4] Radical Feminism :- Radical feminist became aware of their own oppression and exploitation. It stressed on ending societal domination and elitism.
5] Cultural Feminism :- It is non-political in nature. It assumed that women are kind, warm, Loving than men. It believe that if women ruled the regions, there will be less possibility of war and greater sharing of love, joy in the world.
6] Eco-Feminism :- It merger ecology and feminist theory. It stressed on the respect for all living being.
Evolution of Feminism and the growth of different schools of thought on feminism views political theory from the female perspective. The main Features of the feminist approach are as follows :-
1] Stands for women’s liberation and empowerment of Women :- Feminism is a belief in the right of women and equality with men.
It takes the view for the betterment and emancipation of women in society, supported for women‟s rights in politics and in life.
2] Root of all problems is gender inequality :- Feminist thinkers emphasise that gender inequality to be the root cause of all ills in the state. It condemn the established theories of the state on the ground that such ignore the equal rights of women and subjugate them to male dominance in all areas e.g. All governments are dominated by men, all decisions that are taken at the local, national and international level are made from the male perspective,
Feminists have highlighted what they see as the political relationship between the sexes the supremacy of man and the subjection of women.
3] Criticizes Male Bias:- The feminist approach to Political Studies is based on the assumption that the government, it laws, its members, the bureaucracy and civil society all are patriarchal. They are based on a system wherein men are considered to be superior to women. The feminist theory criticizes this male bias and holds it to be unjust.
4] Tackles Problems of Women:- The feminist approach formulates theories that seek to resolve gender bias. It finds solutions to the problems of women and suggests methods by which the government can empower women.
5] Clubbed with other approaches :- The feminist approach is usually adopted in conjunction with another approach such as the normative, empirical, comparative, sociological approaches eg. A study on the voting behavior of women would adopt a feminist empirical approach.
Evaluation of the Feminist approach :-
Critics of the approach claim that feminist theories have the following drawbacks:-
1] Critics say that the assumption of the feminist approach that it is only men who create a woman unfriendly world is incorrect. Many times women are woman‟s worst enemy e.g. In India mother in law and daughter in law relationship.
2] Critics say that tracing all women‟s problems to gender bias is a wrong way to approach issues. Some issues are common to both genders.
Advantages:-
1] It is concerned about the problems of women. If not for feminists, Perhaps women‟s empowerment would not have been as great a success at it is. Feminist Political research studies and finds solutions to problems of women eg. Problems such as poverty among women, crime against women, female foeticides etc.
2] The feminist approach adds a woman‟s touch to global leadership. Peace initiatives, cultural exchanges, literacy drives and Medical aid to needy.
3] Feminism has gained growing respectability as a distinctive school of political thought. It has shed new light upon established
concepts such as power, domination and equality but also introduced a new sensitivity and language into politics.
4] The domestic, professional and public roles of women, at least in developed societies have undergone a major transformation due to feminist approach and women‟s movement.
Table
Feminist Approach
Evolution Growth of feminism Features of Feminists Evolution
women‟s legal question of suffrage equality sexuality movement movement
1 2 3 4 5 6
Liberal Marxist Social Radical Cultural Ecofeminism
QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the main features of the normative approach to Political-Science.
2. Evaluate the empirical approach to Political-Science.
3. Explain the main features of the feminist approach to Political- Science.
3
MODULE III
STATE, MARKET, CIVIL SOCIETY
Syllabus
The changing nature, meaning and interrelationship of:
(1) The State (2) The Market (3) The Civil Society.
Objective – To understand the basic concepts of political science
1. stands for women‟s liberation and empowerment.
2. gender equality 3. critizes malebias 4. women‟s problems.
5. clubbed with other approaches
The state:- INTRODUCTION
In 21st Century, State is ever where. It is touching, directly or indirectly, all aspects of human existence. It has become omnipotent. This was not the case a few centuries age. Back then state had limited role. It was primarily concerned with (i) law and order and (ii) revenue collection. From this very small role to today‟s all pervading role, the role of state has been expanding.
Definitions and Nature of State :- Many scholars have defined state in various ways. Even today modern day scholars attempt to define state taking into account its modern functions.
In 4th century B.C. Aristotle, who is regarded as `Father of Political Science‟ had defined state. According to him, state is a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self sufficing life, by which we mean a happy and honorable life.
According to some scholars, this definition is so comprehensive that it can hardly be improved upon. Aristotle‟s definition communicates the primary objectives of the state however we must study some more definitions of the State.
Holland:- State is a Politically organized people of a definite territory.
Prof Woodrow Wilson, `State is a People organized for law within a definite territory.‟
Though these two definitions are short, they are inadequate also.
Hence we must look at some more definitions
Dr. J.W.Garner, `As a concept of Political Science, the State is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent or nearly so, of external control and possessing an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.”
Prof. Harold Laski, `The State is a territorial society divided into government and subjects claiming within its allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other institutions.
If we analyse the two definitions, we can identify four elements which are essential to make a State. These are (i) Population (ii) territory (iii) government (iv) Sovereignty.
Today we live in them of globalization and an age of international politics. Hence we must consider definition given by Philimore which takes into account the perspective of international law.
According to him, `State is a people permanently occupying a fixed territory, bound together by common laws, habits and customs into
one body politics exerting through the medium of an organized government, independent sovereignty and control over people and things within its boundaries, capable of making war and peace and of entering into all international relations with the countries of the world.”
This definition extends the scope of state. The earlier Scholars focused on four elements. This definition adds the fifth dimension to international relations, war and peace etc.
(b) Elements of the State :-
As noted State has four constituent elements (i) Population (ii) Territory (iii) Government (iv) Sovereignty Each of these element needs to be studied property.
(i) Population – We cannot imagine a State without population. How much population is an issue that can be debated. For example, India is over populated State whereas Austria is under populated State. This issue has engaged the attention of scholars from time immemorial.
Aristotle was talking of optimum population small enough to be well governed and big enough to be self sufficient.
But there is no denying the fact that without population, there is no State.
(ii) Territory – Like without population, we cannot think of a State without territory. A State can exercise its authority over well defined territory.
Fixed Territory is necessary for legal purpose. For emotional purpose, people need to have a fixed territory which they call mother - land or father - land.
Territory is so important that normally there are disputes over borders between two states. For example, India and Pakistan have dispute about Kashmir. India and China has dispute about Arunachal Pradesh.
Fixed, well defined territory is also necessary for legal purpose. A State has control over land, water, mineral wealth and air space.
However, there are some exceptions to the importance of territory as a constituent element of state. Some nomadic tribes wander from region to region. They have no fixed territory. Similarly the Jewish people had no territory of their own till 1948. These are exceptions, not the rule.
(iii) Government – government is that agency which steers the ship of the State. Without government, state will be
directionless. Here the form of government does not matter. It could be Presidential System, one party rule or even dictatorship, there has to be a government. In other words, government is nothing but the implementing arm of state. Government is that system through which state expresses its will. The government makes law, punishes law breakers, promotes welfare of people.
(iv) Sovereignty – scholars believe that sovereignty is the soul of state. Before 15th august 1947, India had territory, population and government. But it did not have sovereignty. It shows the importance of sovereignty.
It has two aspect (i) internal and (ii) external. In internal sovereignty, the state has ultimate, unlimited power within its territory. It enjoy final control over all people, associations and other things. Under external sovereignty, it means a state is free from external control.
It can enter into international treaties. Some scholars believe that after UNO was formed in 1945 and more specifically after the age of globalization began in 1991, the scope of external sovereignty has shrunk considerably.
We have discussed in detail the four constituent elements of state.
STATE AND GOVERNMENT
Quite often even well read intelligent people tend to use state and government as if they are synonymous words. In today‟s political Science, they carry vastly different meaning. Hence it is necessary to understand their meanings. Government:- By now it is clear that government is one of the four ingredients of the state, However it has been specifically defined by various scholars. Prof Gettel defined it “It consists of all those people who are engaged in implementing the will of the state.” In other worlds it is the implementing are of the State which covers civil services, armed forces and police forces.
For implementing the will of the state, the government is given all powers, resources, men and material. It must get obedience of its subjects. It must also have the necessary power to enter into international treaties etc. J.W.Garner has summed it well. He says
`Government must be organized and it must possess the powers and necessary resources so that it can enforce its authority, command respect and obedience. It should be able to maintain peace, order and perform international obligation under the international law.
Distinction between State and Government
State Government
1] State has Four Constituent Elements
1] It is an agency of the State
2] State enjoys original and unlimited Power
2] Powers of the government are limited and delegated
3] State is an abstract idea 3] Government is a solid reality 4] Territory is an essential element
Of state
4] There can be government without territory
5] State is permanent 5] Government is temporary 6] State is a universal Phenomenon
with fixed Elements
6] Form of government can change - Dictator- ship, one party rule 7] State covers all citizens Including
those who are part of Government
7] Government is made up of only those who work for government.
8] A person cannot have rights Against the state
8] A Person can have rights against government
STATE AND CIVIL SOCIETY
Having discussion `State‟, “Government”. Now we will discuss the broader concept of `Society‟, Today Scholars believe that this concept can be used while discussing non human living creatures.
But it is in the case of human because, as was observed by Aristotle „man is a social animal.‟ Society is nothing but a web of social relationships. Hence it is observed that by nature as well as by necessity man is a social animal.
Hence the relationships between man and man have multi dimensions. These relationships cover not only political relationships but social, religious relations relationships also.
Nature of Society :- It is clear by now that society is a much broader concept compared to State and government. However a bunch of people does not become society. Similarly a crowd is also not a society. In fact, today society is a big complex of all types of associations and communities. It has become essential to human existence as through society only, a man can fulfill his needs and dreams. Similarly in a society there are rules, regulations, initiations which regulate the relationships between people.
Association :- It has been defined as an organization of people operating with some fixed rules and has been formed for some specific purpose. These rules are normally written but in rare cases, they could be unwritten. If we compare an `association‟ with a mob it will become clear that `mob‟ has no common specific purpose and has no organization.
The comparison between mob and `association‟ bring forth four elements of an association
1] A group of people
2] Definite rules and regulations
3] Specific purpose.
4] Co-operation among the members.
In today‟s society one can find all kinds of associations such as social, economic, cultural, sports, political. All these associations are created by people and for the people etc. But we must keep in mind that `State‟ is the supreme association, which can be called association of associations. While other associations are man made, State is regarded as the natural outcome of man‟s nature.
Community :-
Community covers a whole area of social life. It could be a village, city, Province or a country. Hence the focus is on discussion of common life being lived by people. Hence people relate to each other freely. This common way of life exhibit common social characteristics.
This discussion brings to surface two essential elements of community –
1] Locality area – Community covers a specified territory. e. g., village, town state. Normally a good community would be settled on a particular piece of land. This habitation on land creates strong emotional bonds towards the land.
2] Common Social Characteristics :- Whether it is a village community or town community, one can identify some common social characteristics. Like social customs, religious festivals, etc.
These create a sense of belonging, oneship among the members.
Quite often we see `community‟ is being used to communicate a group of people of a particular faith. For example, Sikh Community, Jewish Community. But Such use is regarded as `unscientific‟.
Institution –
It is nothing but well established and recognised forms of relationship between social beings. In the case of `institutions‟, what is important is recognised form of relationship. But in case of association and communities they deal with body of people. In other word, society is a huge complex of many kinds of associations, groups, communities and institutions.
Historically, we find that for thinkers like plato, Aristotle, there was no distinction between state and society. Since the city states of Greek era, were small in size and number, there was no distinction between state and society. Similarly we can also quote Hegel, a German Philosopher who had projected the idea of `State-society‟.
In modern times however, we believe that state and society are two different bodies.
This distinction can be understood through their comprehensive definitions `State is a community of people, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent or nearly independent of external control, having an organized government which is obeyed by maximum people‟.
As discussed earlier, analysis of this definition brings four element 1] Population 2] Territory 3] Government 4] Sovereignty.
Similarly we must also discuss definition of `Society‟. It is the whole community of mankind, just as much as a small social group or a village‟. There is always a web of relationship covering not only political relationships but also social, relations, economic relationships etc.
While discussing State and Society it is essential to understand which come first? Society or State? Scholars believe that society come first. Much before state became a reality, there existed some kind of social organizations. In the earliest phase of humanity, there were hunters, fishermen, fruit gatherers who had some social groups. There was no State then. State evolved over a period of time. Even today, we have Eskimos who have no semblance of State. In other words, out of Society comes State.
It is not just the issue of who come first state or society, it is also the issue of scope of the two. It is clear that the scope of society is much larger than the State. In case of State it is just a system created for enforcing discipline, law and order, tax collection, ensuring internal and external security. But society covers lot of ground. In a society various kinds of associations exists. These care social, cultural, economic, religious, sports and entertainment associations. We can sum up by saying State is single - purpose body whereas society is multi - purpose body. Also in terms of structure, society encompasses state.
Similarly we should also understand one more aspect about state and society. State is allowed to use coercion, force to implement its orders, programmers, schemes, etc. But society cannot use force. It uses persuasion, forces of tradition. In rare case, it can use `social boycott‟. But more often than not, it believes in persuasion.
In addition to above differences, one must conclude by highlighting one more difference. It is about territory. A State must have well defined territory, where as society can be borderless. For example, the Red cross society have branches all over the world.
While discussing the difference between state and society, one must also take into account the agency of government. As noted before, `government‟ is a constituent element of state, whereas
`government‟ has no role in the formation and functioning of the society. Historically society came first and then came `government‟.
STATE AND MARKET
Today we hear a lot of discussion about market. `Market – driven policies‟ `Market has collapsed‟, this idea has no market etc. In short, today market is everywhere. In economics, market was always an important concept. After India has adopted the, New Economic policy in 1991, market has assumed political colours.
In a the conventional sense, market is a place where goods, services are bought and sold. It is a place where buyers and sellers come together voluntarily. Hence we hear. `Fish Market‟, `Flower market‟, `Share Market‟ etc.
In modern times, Economics and political Science are merging.
Today role of the state in a market place has become quite important. In the days of classical liberalism, the scholars recommended a minimum role to the state. Later came modern liberalism which gave state an omnipotent role in market Place. In Marxism, state has all the important functions, to perform production, pricing, distribution, selling price etc. all are decided by the state.
Since the collapse of USSR in 1991, the role of state in market, again become a debating point. Today the debate covers following aspects 1] degree of intervention in various areas like price fixation, sanctioning licenses, etc. 2] Nationalization of creation industries and services liking banking and insurance. 3] Taxation Policy and 40 Non interference of the State in the economic activities of the commodities or services. The relationship between market and state has witnessed ups and downs. (a) Free Market Concept – here it is assured that State shall have no role, no intervention in the market. Market Forces will be allowed a free hand. A seller can sale his goods or services at any price he wants. There shall not be any `Maximum retail Price‟ (MRP).
(b) State intervention through nationalization- This is one of the tool by which State assumes an important role. It involves nationalizing some activities. For example, in India important banks were nationalized in July 1969. It means after nationalization the ownership, control and management of the banks would be in the hands of government.
In marxist countries like China, Cuba all important goods (like coal, deference production, etc.) and services (like insurance, banking, railways, etc.) are nationalized.
© Mixed Economy model – This Is a mix of capitalist mode and market model. In capitalist model, all important goods and services are in the hands of private ownership. In Marxist model, all important goods and services are owned and managed the State.
In mixed economy, some important industries like mines, airports, etc are run by state Whereas. non important industries would be allowed to be run by private sector. Similarly in case of some industries like transport, both will operate and compete with each other. It must be noted that right from independence, India has adopted the `mixed economy model‟. Market state relationship after the NEP, 1991.
India adopted the New Economic Policy (NEP) and New Industrial Policy (NIP) in 1991. This was done in the era of globalization. As a result Indian economy was liberalized and privatized. In other words, those sectors which were reserved for public sector are now open to private sector. The NEP also meant disinvestment from government companies which are popularly known as Public Sector under - takings (PSI‟S). Indian government sold public sector companies like Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd (VSNL), Modern Food Ltd to private owners like Tata, Birla.
The NEP also involved de licensing. Now owners, private sector need not have to apply for a license to set up a company. Earlier Indian economy was known as `Licence Permit Raj‟.
In the era of globalization, we cannot keep out foreign investment, in fact according to NEP, the foreran Direct investment (FDI) can come into India but only upto 51%. Not only we are now talking of FDI, we are also encouraging latest technology to come to India.
In case of New Industrial Policy (NIP), it involves reduction of import duties, tariffs, canceling laws like monopoly and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, etc.
Globalization – The main aim of the NEP/NIP was to ensure smooth integration of Indian economy with the world economy.
However conceptually we must understand what globalization stands for.
The international monitors Fund (MF) defines globalization as, “the growing economic interdependence of countries world wide through increasing volume and variety of cross border transaction in goods and services, free international capital flow, quick spread of technology. It is clear that globalization is possible only when economy is liberalized by removing tariffs, quotas and licenses. It also means allowing free movement of capital, labour, technology, trade, technological know how etc.
So far we have discussed globalization through the perspective of economists. Now let us look at it through the perspective of a
political philosopher. Some scholars, believe that `globalization means steady erosion of state governance‟. Globalization is lowering the borders between nations. As a consequence, economy of a nation is becoming part of global economy. Hence we are living in `global society‟ where discussion is about global enemies like religious terrorism, contagious diseases like swine flu, global disasters like Tsunami etc. In other words, as in economics, so in polities, globalization has created new challenges, new opportunities. Whether we like it or not globalization is an irreversible process.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the term „State‟
2. Discuss essential elements of the State.
3. Define „Civil Society‟ and discuss its importance in modern political systems.
4. Discuss the interrelationship between State, Market and Civil Society.
5. Discuss the term Market and examine its relationship with the State.
4
MODULE IV
MEANING AND TYPES OF : POWER, AUTHORITY, LEGITIMACY
Objectives:- To understand the political phenomenon like power, Authority, Legationary in applied sense.
Introduction:- Students of politics often argue the correct meaning and scope of the study of politics. Two board view points of normative and empirical investigation reflect in such arguments.
Normative approach advocate idealism of what „should be‟ and empirical approach supports what „is‟. Twentieth century study of politics stressed to look at the political phenomenon from realistic angle and hence emphasized more on the methods of science to rely upon to understand the actual nature of politics. Hence study of „politics‟ becomes „political Science‟. Such realism eventually leads to understand the political phenomenon in applied sense.
Thus study of themes like „power‟, „authority‟, „legitimacy‟ took over the field of political studies from the traditional idealism, institutionalism etc. In present chapter we will attempt to understand three concepts- power, authority, and legitimacy and its relevance and implications regarding the role of government in society and its relations with subjects i.e. people.
POWER
Concepts of power occupied a respectable position in the modern discussion of politics since the beginning of 20th century. It becomes so inevitable now a day that it is applied not only to describe the international relations but also the social unit like family. The concept altered the meaning of politics in dramatic way and made it appear like „contest for power‟. From Hobbes‟s description of the warring state of nature to the Betty Freidan‟s Feminine Mystique applied power as analytical tool to describe the human relation at macro as well as micro level.
Meaning:- What is Power?
The notion of power has multiple meanings. It is an „essentially contested‟ concept. No settled or agreed definition can ever be developed. In natural sciences, power is understood as „force‟ or
„energy‟. In social sciences it appears with diverse interpretations like; the ability to achieve a desired outcome, and an exercise of control by one over another.
Power is a psycho political phenomenon. In simple sense it is the capacity of the person/group/institution to affect / change/
modify the behaviour of other person/group/institution.
In this sense it is the capacity to influence the behaviour of others.
Further this influence is not voluntary and not readily accepted by those over whom it is applied. Hence Power is the capacity of one to impose its will over others irrespective of the will of others.
When one succeeds in making other person do, which otherwise he would not do or restricting other persons from doing things which otherwise that person want to do, then it is said that the will of first person is imposed on the other and hence power is applied.
What make power different from other concepts like Force, Influence, and Authority?
Force is the instrument of power. Influence is the outcome of the power and authority is the legitimized power. But force, influence and authority in itself are not power.
Force is more physical and power is psychological. Relation between power and force is delicate one and the difference is often blurred. Perceived threat of force can result in change in the
