i
DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS OF RHETORICAL DEVICES
IN SELECTED ROMAN CATHOLIC BISHOPS’ PASTORAL LETTERS IN ONITSHA ECCLESIASTICAL PROVINCE, NIGERIA
BY
VIRGINIA CHIKA OKAFOR B.A. English (Nsukka), M.A. English, P.G.D.E. (Ado-Ekiti) Matric. No. 154677
A Thesis in the Department of English, Submitted to the Faculty of Arts
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
of the
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
JULY, 2014
ii ABSTRACT
The pastoral letter, an open letter addressed by a bishop to members of his diocese for the purpose of promoting faith and good Christian living, constitutes a persuasive religious discourse characterised by numerous rhetorical devices. Previous studies on Christian religious languagehave concentrated mainly on sermons, liturgy, prayers, theology, scriptures, hymns, and songs to the exclusion of the persuasive power of pastoral letters. This study, therefore, examined themes and rhetorical devices in selected Roman Catholic bishops‘ pastoral letters in the Onitsha Ecclesiastical Province, with a view todetermining their persuasive discourse functions.
Aristotelian Rhetoric, which emphasises persuasion through three main rhetorical appeals: logos,pathos,andethos was adopted as the framework.Data were drawn from 10 pastoral letters of five Roman Catholic bishops in five dioceses (two letters from each) where pastoral letters are published regularly, out of the seven in Onitsha Province. These were Onitsha, Nnewi, Awka, Enugu, and Awgudioceses. The letters, published between 2000 and 2010 and ranging between 20 and 104 pages, were purposively selected based on consistency, thematic preoccupations, and rhetorical content. Data weresubjected to discourse analysis.
Four major themes: faith, repentance, love, and loyalty to the Roman Catholic Church were identified. There were three categories of rhetorical devices: logos-based (logic), pathos-based (emotions), and ethos-based (character). There were 10 logos-based devices: use of testimonial reference functioning as authority to validate messages;
deductive and inductive reasoningappealing to the rationality of the audience; definitions establishing a common ground for arguments; comparison (analogy/metaphor) for explanations to ensure comprehension; nominalisation and passivisation objectifying the validity of ideas; syntactic parallelism and antithesis emphasising ideas for easy grasp; and obligation/necessity modals appealing to the audience‘s sense of responsibility and moral duty. Eight pathos-based deviceswere used: Igbo language expressing solidarity with the audience; prayersinspiring them; inclusive pronoun (we) creating a feeling of belonging, collectivism and oneness; rhetorical questions (RQs) appealing todenominationalsentiments;
sarcasm, segregation pronoun (they), and negative emotion-laden words referring to non- Catholic groups to create distaste for non-Catholic faith; feminine pronoun (she) and positive emotion-laden words referring to the Roman Catholic Church (RCC) to keep the audience emotionally attached to it.Finally, seven devices characterised ethos: use of first-
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person singular pronoun (I), declaratives, and imperatives invoking the authority of the bishops‘ office; Latinisms showing learnedness; greetings and appreciation expressing goodwill; and exemplary Biblical characters as models of faith, repentance, and love. All the devices in the three categories related to the four themes except RQs, the pronouns they, she, and emotion-laden words, relating to loyalty. Comparatively, logos-based devices preponderated over pathos- and ethos-based ones reflecting emphasis of the RCC on reason as the basis for faith.
Roman Catholic bishops‘ pastoral letters in the Onitsha Ecclesiastical Province were characterised by a preponderance of logos-based rhetorical devices, and a widespread use of pathos- and ethos-based ones,designed to communicate messages of faith, repentance, love, and loyalty, and persuade the audience to live accordingly.The rhetorical devices, therefore, establish the pastorals as a significant form of persuasive religious discourse.
Keywords: Discoursefunctions, Rhetorical devices, Roman Catholic bishops, Pastoral letters,Onitsha Ecclesiastical Province.
Word count: 500
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I give all glory and honour to the Almighty God for his immense grace which has made it possible for me to successfully complete this research work. Right from admission into the programme, through choice of topic and supervisor, and through the various challenges I faced in the course of writing the thesis, I could see the gracious hand of God supporting and seeing me through seemingly impossible situations. He sees my heart and knows the depth of my gratitude and indebtedness to him.
Words cannot express my gratitude to the instrument that God used to achieve this feat in my life, my amiable and good-natured supervisor, Dr. M.A. Alo, who was a supervisor with a difference. He was always nearest when the need was greatest. When situations were most challenging and I found myself at the verge of losing hope, he was available for me, offering his advice and moral support. I cannot thank him enough. God knows how best to reward him.
What do I say to the members of staff of the English department, both academic and non-academic, a family of hard working people headed by the young and able Professor E.B. Omobowale. The Prof. was always showing his concern and telling me: ‗It is well.‘
My immeasurable gratitude goes to the energetic and indefatigable Dr. S.A. Odebunmi, who not only made available to me most of the materials I used for this research, but also helped to bring the thesis to a successful conclusion through his immense contributions at the abstract writing stage. I appreciate the contributions of the Erudite Scholar, Professor O.
Oha, who refocused my thesis and offered assistance by giving me useful insights and making relevant books available to me. I owe much gratitude to Dr. Mrs. O.B. Jegede, for her motherly love and care. She was always there encouraging me and alleviating my worries. The young and hardworking Dr. A.A. Osisanwo deserves my thanks, not a million times, but an uncountable number of times, for his unquantifiable contributions to the success of this thesis. I appreciate the contributions of Professor N.O. Fasina, my lecturer during my M.A. programme at the then Ondo State University Ado-Ekiti (OSUA) and my eminent Professor now at the University of Ibadan. He was always showing concern and giving me advice. Worthy of my appreciation are Professor A. Raji-Oyelade, the Dean Faculty of Arts, Prof. O.A. Ogunsiji, Dr. R.O. Oriaku, Dr. A.B. Sunday, and Dr. D.S.
Adeyanju.
The contributions of the non-academic members of staff of the department cannot be undermined. The Secretary par excellence, Mr. A. Bassey, Mr. O.M. Iyiola, Mr. O.J.
Olaoye, Mrs. R. Sodeinde, Mr. V. Imafidon and the young mummy, Mrs. C.I. Oladapo were
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always available to offer me one kind of assistance or the other. Mr. Imafidon, in particular, was always there at my beck and call.
I appreciate the contributions of my friend and brother, Dr. E. Igwebuike of the Covenant University, Otta. His offer of books, insights, advice, and other forms of moral support qualifies him to be called my second supervisor. I am highly indebted to my second family in Ibadan, the familyof Mr. and Mrs. R.A.Olanrewaju, who provided me another home away from my home. My interactions with my colleague, Mrs. T. Olanrewaju, made the problems and difficulties of the study bearable. Thanks to God we have made it together. Daddy Olanrewaju was always there encouraging and praying for us, while Bimbo, handy with her palatable dishes, was always ready to set the table at the right time.
Victor, Tope, and Iyanu were wonderful, too. I also owe my indebtedness to my friend Mrs.
O.M. Nwosu whose assistance, right from the admission stage when she was the financial officer of the Post-graduate School and afterwards, cannot be easily forgotten. My priest friends deserve my appreciation, too: Rev. Fr. M.R. Igirigi (CMF), for helping me to secure a good and safe place of accommodation in Ibadan, and Rev.Fr. Aloysius Ugo (CMF), for providing me with relevant books on the Roman Catholic Church.
My gratitude goes to my employer, the Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti for granting me a three-year study leave through the ETF sponsorship programme, and to the head of my department, the General Studies department, Pastor R.A. Afe, for his understanding and prayers.
How do I appreciate the sacrifice made by my loving family for the successful completion of this study? My loving husband endured, with fervent hope, all the inconveniences of my continued absence, managing the home and taking care of the children. His constant prayers, as well as those of my sweet darlings, D-boy and Mimi, always kept me safe on the roads and provided the spiritual backing that made this study a success. Though they missed much of my motherly care and attention for the period, they never grumbled. I thank God for the gift of this precious family.
I thank my typist Mummy Sam and her apprentice for the typing and printing job, and all other people who in one way or the other contributed to the success of this research work. May the Lord bless them all.
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DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to the Almighty God whose abundant grace made it possible; to my husband and pillar of support, Ikem; and to my precious darlings, D-boy and Mimi.
vii CERTIFICATION
I certify that this work was carried out by Mrs V.C. Okafor in the Department of English, University of Ibadan
……….
Supervisor M.A.Alo
B.A. , M. A (Ife), Ph.D (Reading)
Reader, Department of English University of Ibadan
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title page i
Abstract ii-iii
Acknowledgements iv-v
Dedication vi
Certification vii
Table of contents viii-xiii
List of tables xiv
List of abbreviations xv
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background to the study 1-4
1.2 Statement of the problem 5-6
1.3 Aim and objectives 6
1.4 Research questions 6
1.5 Scope of the study 6
1.6 Significance of the study 6-7
1.7 Data for the study 7
1.8 Summary 7
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE/ THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.0 Introduction 8
2.1 Review of relevant literature 8
2.1.1 The Concept of discourse 8
2.1.1.1 Approaches to discourse 9
2.1.1.2 Discourse functions 9 2.1.1.3 Discourse and social context 9-13
2.1.1.4 Register and genre 13
2.1.1.4.1 Register 13-14
2.1.1.4.2 Genre 14-16
2.1.2 The Language of religion 16-24
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2.1.3 Epistolary genre 24-28
2.1.4 Discourse-stylistics and rhetoric 28-31
2.1.4.1 Functions of rhetoric 31-33
2.1.4.2 Rhetorical devices 33-35
2.1.5 Rhetoric and religion 36-37
2.2 Theoretical framework 37
2.2.1 The Aristotelian rhetoric 37
2.2.1.1 Definition of rhetoric 37
2.2.1.2 Means of persuasion 37-38
2.2.1.2.1 Ethos: persuasion through the speaker‘s character 38 2.2.1.2.2 Pathos: persuasion through the audience‘s emotions 38 2.2.1.2.3 Logos: persuasion through reasoned arguments 38-39
2.2.1.3 Forms of public speech 39
2.2.1.4 Delivery, style, and arrangement of speech 39-40 2.2.2 Halliday‘s systemic functional linguistics 40-41 2.2.2.1 Relevance of systemic functional linguistics to rhetoric 41-42 2.2.2.2 Aspects of systemic functional linguistics relevant for the study 42
2.2.2.2.1 Form and function 42
2.2.2.2.2 The interpersonal metafunction 43
2.3 Conclusion 43
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction 44
3.1 Pilot study and its relevance 44-45
3.2 Research proper 45
3.2.1 Choice of texts for the study 45
3.2.2 Data collection 45-46
3.2.3 Method of sampling 46-47
3.2.4 Methods of data analysis 47
3.2.4.1 Quantitative method 48
3.2.4.2 Qualitative method 48
3.2.5 Presentation of data in tables 48 3.2.5.1 Lexical choices and themes 49-51
x
3.2.5.2 Rhetorical devices and persuasive discourse functions in relation to themes
3.2.6 Conclusion 69 69 69
CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL CHOICES AND THEMES IN THE ROMAN CHATHOLIC BISHOPS’ PASTORAL LETTERS
4.0 Introduction 72
4.1 Lexical choices for the theme of faith 72
4.1.1 Words signifying the theme of faith 72-74
4.1.2 Synonyms 74-76
4.1.3 Antonyms 76-78
4.1.4 Lexical repetitions 78-80
4.2 Lexical choices for the theme of loyalty to the
Roman Catholic Church 80-81
4.2.1 Words signifying the theme of loyalty to the Roman
Catholic Church 81-83
4.2.2 Antonyms 83-84
4.2.3 Lexical repetitions 85-86
4.2.4 Synonyms 86-88
4.3 Lexical choices for thetheme of repentance 88
4.3.1 Words signifying the theme of repentance 88-90
4.3.2 Antonyms 90-92
4.3.3 Synonyms 92-94
4.3.4 Lexical repetitions 94-96
4.4 Lexical choices for the theme of love 96-97
4.4.1 Words signifying the theme of love 97-99
4.4.2 Antonyms 99-100
4.4.3 Synonyms 101-102
4.4.4 Lexical repetitions 102-104
4.5 Conclusion 104-105
CHAPTER FIVE
51-71 7171 71
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ANALYSIS OF RHETORICAL DEVICES AND THEIR PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS IN THE LETTERS
5.0 Introduction 106
5.1 Logos-based devices 106
5.1.1 Testimonial reference validating messages 106
5.1.1.1 Reference to the Holy Bible 107
5.1.1.1.1. Biblical quotations 107-109
5.1.1.1.2 Biblical allusions 109-111
5.1.1.2 Reference to the Vatican Council documents 111-112 5.1.1.3 Reference to the Catechism of the Catholic Church 112-113
5.1.1.4 Reference to the Canon Law 113-114
5.1.1.5 Reference to the Pope‘s documents 114-115
5.1.1.6 Reference to the saints‘ documents 115-116
5.1.2 Deductive and inductive argument appealing to the
rationality of the audience 116-117
5.1.2.1 Deductive argument 117-119
5.1.2.2 Inductive argument 119-121
5.1.3 Definitions supporting the theses of arguments 121-124 5.1.4 Comparison for concrete explanations 124
5.1.4.1 Analogy 124-127
5.1.4.2 Metaphor 127-128
5.1.4.2.1 Metaphor of planting 128-130
5.1.4.2.2 Metaphor of journey 130-132
5.1.4.2.3 Metaphor of war 132-133
5.1.4.2.4 Metaphor of water 133-134
5.1.4.2.5 Metaphor of building 134-136
5.1.4.2.6 Metaphor of light 136-137
5.1.4.2.7 Metaphor of food 137-139
5.1.4.2.8 Metaphor of body parts. 139-140
5.1.4.2.9 Metaphor of health 140-142
5.1.4.2.10 Metaphor of meteorology 142-143 5.1.5 Nominalisation and passivisation objectifying the
validity of call to action 143
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5.1.5.1 Nominalisation 144-146
5.1.5.2 Passivisation 146-148
5.1.6 Syntactic parallelism emphasising ideas for easy grasp 148-154 5.1.7 Antithesisemphasising ideas for easy grasp 154-156 5.1.8 Obligation/necessity modals appealing to the audience‘s
sense of responsibility and moral duty 156-159
5.2 Pathos-based devices 159
5.2.1 Code switching from English to Igbo to express solidarity
with the audience 159-160
5.2.1.1 Intra-sentential switches 160-161
5.2.1.2 Inter-sentential switches 161-163
5.2.1.3 Igbo proverbs 163-166
5.2.2 Prayers for inspiration 166
5.2.2.1 Prayers expressed as wishes 166-168 5.2.2.2 Prayers expressed as direct address to God 168-169 5.2.3 Inclusive pronoun (we) creating a feeling of belonging,
collectivism and oneness 169-172
5.2.4 Rhetorical questions appealing to denominational sentiments 172-174 5.2.5 Sarcasm creating distaste for non-catholic faith 174-176 5.2.6 Segregation pronoun creating distaste for non-Catholic
faith and anti-catholic activities 176-178 5.2.7 Personification of the RCC as mother for emotional attachment to it178-180 5.2.8 Emotion-laden wordscreating distaste for non-catholic faith and
emotional attachment to the RCC 180-183 5.3 Ethos-based devices: appeals to character 183 5.3.1 First-person singular pronoun (I) expressing the authority of the
bishops‘ office 183-185
5.3.2 Declaratives expressing the bishops‘ teaching authority 186-188 5.3.3 Imperatives expressing the authority of the bishops‘ office 188 5.3.3.1 Second-person imperatives 188-190
5.3.3.2 First-person imperatives 190-192
5.3.4 Latinisms showing learnedness 192-193 5.3.4.1 Intra-sentential switches to Latin 193-194
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5.3.4.2 Inter-sentential switches to Latin 194-195
5.3.4.3 Latin slogans 195-197
5.3.5 Greetings and appreciation expressing goodwill 197
5.3.5.1 Greetings 198-199
5.3.5.2 Appreciation 199-202
5.3.6 Biblical characters as models of faith, repentance, and love 202-204
5.4 Conclusion 204-205
CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.0 Introduction 206
6.1 Summary 206
6.1.1 The major themes of the bishop‘s pastoral letters 206-207 6.1.2 Rhetorical devices in the letters and their persuasive
discourse functions 207-208 6.1.3 Rhetorical devices versus contextual factors 208-210 6.1.4 Generalizations on the language of Roman Catholic bishops‘
Lenten pastoral letters in the Ecclesiastical Province of Onitsha 210-211
6.2 Conclusion 211
6.3 Recommendations 212
REFERENCES 213-223
APPENDIX
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Sampled dioceses and pastoral letters 47
Table 3.2 Distribution of lexical choices relating to themes 49 Table 3.3 Distribution of lexical choices relating to the theme of faith 49 Table 3.4 Distribution of lexical choices relating to the theme of loyalty
to the Roman Catholic Church 50
Table 3.5 Distribution of lexical choices relating to the theme of repentance 50 Table 3.6 Distribution of lexical choices relating to the theme of love 51 Table 3.7 Rhetorical devices and their persuasive discourse functions
in the letters 51-70
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS RCC: Roman Catholic Church
CTC:Call to Conversion
GCTR: God Is Calling us to Reconciliation WWF: We Walk by Faith
FFF: From Faith to Faith TML: The Measure of Love IYHF: If only You Have Faith
RBGN Repent and Believe the Good News LALG: Living in the Amazing Love of God LTF: Living the Faith
OEO: Okwukwe Ezi Olu
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CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 2.0 Introduction
This chapter gives a general introduction to the study. It focuses on the background to the study, statement of the problem, aims and objectives, research questions, scope, significance and data for the study.
1.1 Background to the study
Pastoral lettersare open letters addressed by a bishop to members of his diocese.In the Roman Catholic Church, diocesan bishops‘ pastoral letters fall into three categories:
those written as a follow-up to the Pope‘s encyclicals, those written in responseto contemporary social, political or religious issues, and those written at particular ecclesiastical seasons, such as the season of Lent. The bishops, as the custodians of the Roman Catholic faith and as the shepherds of the flocks in their respective dioceses, have the responsibility of teaching faith and morals, and encouraging the faithful to practice and defend them (Can., 749 S.2, 1997)). Pastoral letters serve as the medium through which the bishops exercise their teaching authority in the Church.Theirteachings are respected as authenticbecause the bishops are believed to be successors of the apostles (Davis 1982). The pastoral letters are thereforeconsidered as important religious documents in the Roman Catholic Church. The Lenten pastoral letters of the Roman Catholic bishops in the Onitsha Ecclesiastical Province, Nigeria, which are the focus of this study,are aimed at promoting the Roman Catholic faith and good Christian living among the faithful in the province.
Roman Catholicism is a Christian denomination with distinct characteristics observable in its doctrine, its mode of worship and its practices. Religion facts (2004) observes that, for the first thousand years of Christianity, there was no ‗Roman Catholicism‘
as we know it today, simply because there was no Eastern Orthodoxy or Protestantism to distinguish it. There was only the ―one, holy Catholic Church‖ affirmed by the early creeds, which was the body of Christian believers all over the world, united by common traditions, beliefs, church structure and worship. Catholicism today, as pointed out byHellwig (1996), is defined in strictly institutional terms, describing those in sacramental communion with Rome, accepting the doctrinal, moral and disciplinary authority of the Roman See.According to Hellwig, the church is now known as the Roman Catholic Church, and to be a Roman Catholic means to be a Christian with unique beliefs, practices and traditions that are distinct from those of other Christians.
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McBrien (1994) and Hellwig (1996) identify certain characteristicsof Roman Catholicism each of which it shares with one or another Christian church or tradition but which no other church or tradition possesses in the same configuration. These characteristics include: Roman Catholicism‘s emphasis on the role of reason in the understanding and expression of Christian faith; its reverence for the Scripture as well as the Church Tradition; its deep appreciation of the sacramental principle, that is that God is present in all created things; its view of sin and redemption as corporate issues for the human community; and its universality or catholicity, which makes it accessible to men of all races and cultures. The configuration of the characteristics, McBrien (1994:9) remarks, is expressed in ―Catholicism‘s systematic theology; its body of doctrines; its liturgical life especially the Eucharist; its variety of spiritualities; its religious congregations, and lay apostolate, its official teachings on justice, peace, and human rights; its exercise of collegiality, and its Petrine ministry.‖
Roman Catholicism is marked by its hierarchical structure, with the Pope at the apex, followed by cardinals, archbishops, bishops, priests, deacons and laity (Stanford, 2011). Archbishops are heads of ecclesiastical provinces made up of particular churches called dioceses which are in turn headed by bishops.An arch-bishop is both the bishop of his diocese, which constitutes the provincial headquarters, and the arch-bishop of the whole province.The Ecclesiastical Province of Onitsha is one of the nine Roman Catholic ecclesiastical provinces in Nigeria, (Other provinces are Lagos, Abuja, Benin, Kaduna, Calabar, Ibadan, Jos, and Owerri.) and one of the oldest (erected on 18th April 1950 along with the Ecclesiastical Provinceof Lagos).It comprises seven dioceses:Onitsha (the Archdiocese/the provincial headquarters), Nnewi, Awka, Enugu, Awgu, Nsukka and Abakaliki dioceses.Located in the South Eastern region of Nigeria, the province is a predominantly Igbo society, incorporating Anambra, Enugu, and Ebonyi states. The practice of Roman Catholicism in the province is, to a large extent, affected by the culture of the people.
The Igbo community of the Onitsha Ecclesiastical Province has a culture that is highly religious. The Igbo traditional religion is hardly separated from the lives of the people. It is a religion in which God, the gods, evil spirits and forces had a very close relationship with the human world. The supreme God called Chukwu (great god) or Chineke (god, the creator) occupies a unique place in the religious life of the people. He is the creator of all things including the minor divinities (gods), through which he governs the universe. For his overall wellbeing, progress, security, protection from his enemies,
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recovery from sickness, man must have constant recourse to the divinities by prayers and sacrifices of different kinds, and must be at peace with them at all times (Ezeanya, 1980).
Okeke (2003:60) observes that in the traditional Igbo society:
Everything was done religiously. From the cradle to the grave and beyond, the traditional culture provided religious rites appropriate for every state and stage of life and for every activity.
With such a cultural background, the Igbo Catholic community of Onitsha province is faced with the challenges of living authentic Christian life. In the face of difficulties such as marital problems, ill-health, lack of material progress, etc., the people always have recourse to their traditional religion. As a result, Christianity and traditional religion constantly clash in almost every facet of the lives of the people.
Like most urban communities in Africa, the Igbo Catholic community of Onitsha province has lost contact with most of the cultural values which the traditional Igbo society is known for. Such values as communal life, dignity of the human person, respect for elders, good character, obedience, honesty, bravery, etc. are on the decline. For example, in the traditional Igbo society a man lived his life, not as an individual but under the pressure of the group: the family, the clan, the village, or the town. As remarked by Edeh (1985), the idea of making sure that everything is in tune with the community of being is always in the background of the thoughts and actions of the people, whether they are thinking or acting as a community or as individuals. Obiechina, (1975) adds that because the principle of communal life is fundamental to the society‘s very survival and general health it is given validity by being anchored in customary practice and protected by divine and ancestral authority.This communal spirit which the Igbo people are known for has given way to individuality and selfishness such that rather than seek for the common good of the society, there is competition for individual excellence, and this, most of the time, breeds all sorts of anti-Christian behaviour. The self-seeking attitude is not unconnected with emphasis on individuality brought about by Christianity. Nnabuife (1983:232) rightly observes that:
In a society where the group conscience rather than the individual conscience is exalted in almost every sphere of life, to embrace Christianity implies renouncing the traditional religion with its moral, civil and political obligations.
This, to a large extent, is true of the Igbo Catholic community in the EcclesiasticalProvince of Onitsha.
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Hard work and diligence are the marks of the Igbo Catholic community in Onitsha province. Right from the traditional society up to the present times, Igbo people are known for their industry and determination to succeed. Their quest for achievement especially in terms of material wealth can take them to any length, and this, in most cases, clashes with their religious obligations. However, once they have made the money they are generous in their financial donations to the Church. There are cases of individuals taking charge of gigantic projects in the Church or even building a whole church single-handed. The quest for acquisition of material wealth has made Igbo society a materialistic one. Every activity, event, or occasion is an opportunity to show off wealth. This is evident in the way money is lavishly spent during occasions such as marriage ceremonies, burial ceremonies, title- taking ceremonies, etc. The poor ones are given the impression that without money, these things cannot be done.
These cultural issues which pose challenges to Christian faith, especially the Roman Catholic faith, in the Ecclesiastical Province of Onitsha are reflected in the bishops‘ Lenten pastoral letters. The pastorals are aimed at promotingthe Roman Catholic faith and Since the Lenten period is a period when Christians are expected to reflect on their lives as Christians, the bishops through their Lenten pastoral letters provide the faithful with subjects to reflect on for the season. persuading the faithful to live good Christian lives, especially in the face of social, cultural, religious, and political challenges.
The language of the pastorals is worth studying for a number of reasons. First, language as a means of communication plays an indispensable role in the communication of religious messages. Second, the pastorals are serious documents written in solemn situation;
consequently, factors of social situation are bound to influence language use in the letters.Third, the Lenten pastorals constitute an important public discourse with persuasive purpose, and as such are expected to be characterised by rhetorical devices aimed at influencing attitudes and inducing actions.There is,therefore, need to study the Roman Catholic bishop‘s Lenten Pastorals in the Ecclesiastical Province of Onitsha, as a persuasive religious discourse, prompted by a particular rhetorical situation, and characterisedby rhetorical devices aimed at persuasion. Aristotelian Rhetoricbecomes handy as a suitable theoretical framework because of its emphasis on persuasion through rhetorical appeals of ethos, pathos and logos. Analysis based on this framework will enable us to establish the pastorals as a significant form of persuasive religious discourse. The study will also underscore the interconnection betweenrhetoric and religion and contribute to a better understanding of the language of religion.
5 1.2Statement of the problem
Previous studies on the language and style of Christian religion have concentrated mainly on sermons, liturgy, prayers, theology, scriptures, and songs to the exclusion of the persuasive power of pastoral letters. Idowu (2007), for example, focuses on cohesion in the language of sermons in Pentecostal and orthodox churches; Aladeyomi (2007) investigates the phonological features that mark electronic media Christian sermons in Nigeria;
Odebunmi (2007) investigates language use in Christian and Islamic religious advertisements on radio and television in the South-western Nigeria; Babatunde (1998) carries out a speech act analysis of Evangelical Christian religious sermons;Crystal and Davy (1983) examine liturgical language of contemporary Christianity;Adedeji (2007) is a study of the praise and worship style of the contemporary Nigerian avant garde (charismatic) Church; Mar (1998) demonstrates how the prayers from various Christian groups reveal the differences in the way the adherents relate to God;Pernot (2006) examines two rhetorical forms of religious discourse, prayer and hymn;Keane (1997) is a theological study of religious language, whichfocuses on the interaction of religious adherents with spiritual and invisible participants in such speech situations as prayers, and other ritualistic practices. Ogunleye and Olagunju (2007) and Babalola (2007) are works on scriptures. The former analyses the thematic structure of Isaiah 49, while the latter investigates structural and syntactic differences in selected verses of three versions of the Holy Bible_ the King James Version (KJV), the New International Version (NIV), and the Revised Standard Version (RSV). Van Neste (2005) on his part examines St. Paul‘s Pastoral Epistles to determine the boundaries of each discourse unit using cohesive shift analysis.Taiwo (2008) examines the language of some contemporary Christian songs in Pentecostal Churches in South-western Nigeria in order to explore the choices made in the lyrics and identify how they tie with the wider social and cultural structures of the society; whileBabajide (2007) is a study of stylistic devices in the Song of Solomon and p‘Bitek‘s Song of Lawino.
While several studies exist on these various forms of Christian religious discourse, not much is found on pastoral letters, a persuasive religious discourse characterised by numerous rhetorical devices. This gap has necessitated our study of rhetorical devices in selected Roman Catholic bishops‘ pastoral letters in the Onitsha Ecclesiastical Province, Nigeria,with a view todetermining their persuasive discourse functions.The study is expected to result in the identification of the kind of rhetoric that is specific to the pastoral letters. The rhetorical approach will also provide a better understanding of the pastorals as an instrument of persuasion and moral change.
6 1.3 Aim and objectives
The aim of this study, therefore, is to examinethemes and rhetorical devices in selected Roman Catholic bishops‘ pastoral letters in the Ecclesiastical Province of Onitsha, Nigeria, in order to determine their persuasive discourse functions. The study has the following objectives:
To identify and analyse the major themes of the letters
To identify and analyse therhetorical devices in the letters alongside their persuasive discourse functions
To find out the contextual factors behind the use of the rhetorical devices
To make generalizations on the language of Roman Catholic bishops‘ pastoral letters based on insights from the study.
1.4 Research questions
The following research questions were answered in the course of the study:
What are the major themes of the Roman Catholic bishops‘ Lenten pastoral letters in the Ecclesiastical Province of Nigeria?
Which rhetorical devices are deployed for the purpose of persuasionin the letters?
To what extent is the choice of the rhetorical devices determined by context?
What generalisationscan be made on the language of Roman Catholic bishops‘
Lenten pastoral letters, based on insights from the study?
1.5 Scope of the study
The study is restricted to themes and the rhetorical devices deployed in the Roman Catholic bishops‘Lenten pastoral letters in the Ecclesiastical Province of Onitsha to achieve the purpose of promoting the Roman Catholic faith and its practice in the province. It covers ten Lenten pastoral letters written by five Roman Catholic Bishops in five dioceses in Onitsha Ecclesiastical province and published between 2000 and 2010.The dioceses are: the arch-diocese of Onitsha, dioceses of Nnewi, Awka, Enugu, and Awgu.
1.6 Significance of the study
The significance of the study lies in the potential it has to shed light on the persuasive properties of the Roman Catholic bishops‘ Lenten pastoral letters in the Ecclesiastical Province of Onitsha, which have hitherto remained obscure due to lack of adequate studies on the pastorals. The study would lead to a better understanding of the
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letters as an instrument of persuasion and moral change, and establish them as a specific form of persuasive religious discourse. It would also confirm the close connection between rhetoric and religion and provide adeeperinsight into the language of religion.
1.7 Data for the study
Data for the study are derived from ten Lenten pastoral letters of five Roman Catholic bishops in five dioceses of the Ecclesiastical Province of Onitsha. The five dioceses are dioceses of Enugu, Nnewi, Awka, Awgu, and the Arch-diocese of Onitsha. The pastoral letters, which span between 2000 and 2010 and rangebetween 20 and 104 pages, include: God is calling us to reconciliation (2001, Enugu), Okwukwe ezi olu (2010, Enugu), Repent and believe the good news (2008, Awka), Call to conversion (2000, Awka), If only you have faith (2006, Onitsha), The measure of love (2005, Onitsha), From faith to faith (2004, Nnewi), We walk by faith (2003, Nnewi), Living in the amazing love of God (2008, Awgu),and Living the faith (2006, Awgu).They were purposively selected based on consistency in publication, thematic preoccupations, and rhetorical content.
1.8 Summary
This chapter has been able to give a brief background to the study, as well as statement of the problem, aim and objectives, research questions, scope, significance, and data for the study. The next chapter dwells on review of literature and theoretical framework.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE/ THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
8 2.0 Introduction
Here, in this chapter,literature relating to the study, in addition to the theoretical framework,is reviewed. Areas covered in the literature review includethe concept of discourse,the Language of Religion, epistolary genre, discourse-stylistics and rhetoric.
These are followed by a review of the theoretical framework for the study covering Aristotelian Rhetoric and insights from Halliday‘s Systemic Functional theory.
2.1 Review of relevant literature 2.1.1 The concept of discourse
Discourse is generally defined as ‗language in use‘ (Woods 2006, Brown and Yule, 1983).It involvesthe interaction of speaker/writer and listener/reader in a specific situational context, and within a framework of social and cultural conventions (Abrams, 2005). As such discourse has bothlinguistic and social senses as it points to properties of stretches of language above the level of sentence and understands these stretches of language as a place where socially produced meaning emerges(Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2001). Discourse, therefore, refers to language in use within a particular social context. It includes both spoken and written forms.
Some scholars such as Wisnieswki (2006), Salkie (1998), and Allerton,(1979) consider discourse to besynonymous with text.However, Bloor and Bloor (2007), Verdonk (2002), and Titscher et al. (2000) make a distinction between the two concepts. Bloor and Bloor (2007) conceive of a text as a physical manifestation of discourse. To them, a text is normally used to describe a linguistic record of a communicative event, and this may be an electronic recording or a written text. Brown and Yule (1983) also use text as a technical term to refer to the verbal record of a communicative act whether spoken or written.
Verdonk (2002) and Titscher et al. (2000) base their own distinction on the seven criteria of textuality proposed by de Beaugrande and Dressler (1981). They are of the view that while text invokes the idea of unity or wholeness in terms of meaning and structure, discourse incorporates this idea as well as other contextual and situational variables, and is therefore wider than, and inclusive of, text. Discourse is conceived of in this study as being synonymous with text.
2.1.1.1 Approaches to the study of discourse
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Discourse has been studied from various perspectives. These approaches include Conversational Analysis (C.A.), Critical Discourse Analysis (C.D.A), Ethnography of Communication, Pragmatics, Discourse-Stylistics,Rhetoric, etc.Jorgensen and Phillips (2002:23) point out that, thoughnot all discourse analytical approaches subscribe explicitly to post structuralism, all can agree to the following main points:
• Language is not a reflection of a pre-existing reality.
• Language is structured in patterns or discourses – there is not just onegeneral system of meaning as in Saussurean structuralism but a series of systems or discourses, whereby meanings change from discourse todiscourse.
• These discursive patterns are maintained and transformed in discursivepractices.
• The maintenance and transformation of the patterns should thereforebe explored through analysis of the specific contexts in whichlanguage is in action.
Our preoccupation here is with Discourse-Stylistic approach, and this is fully explained in section 2.1.4 below.
2.1.1.2 Discourse functions
The functions performed by discourse are generally classified as expressive, informative, persuasive and social functions in accordance with the focus of language use.
Discourse performs expressive functions when the focus is on the language user; that is, the speaker/writer is using language for the purpose of expressing himself. Informative function is performed when the focus is on the message. In that case all forms of explanatory devices are employed to ensure clarity and comprehension of message. Persuasive function is performed in a discourse that is audience-centred. It is aimed at influencing the attitudes and behaviour of the audience. Consequently, all forms of persuasive techniques are deployed to achieve persuasion. Discourse functions socially when attention is on the social context as it affects language use. Though these functions may be performed in a particular discourse in various degrees, the classification is based on the dominant function.The interest of this study is on analyzing the persuasive discourse functions of the Roman Catholic bishops‘
Lenten pastoral letters in the Ecclesiastical Province of Onitsha.
2.1.1.3 Discourse and social context
The importance of social context in language use has been emphasised by scholars in sociolinguistics. Works in this area were pioneered by Bronislaw Malinowski,a Professor of Anthropology, who,after his field work on the language and culture of the Trobriand Islanders in the South Pacific, concluded that an utterance makes sense only if it is seen in the context in which it is used, since the meanings of utterances are bound up with the
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culture and environment in which the utterances are produced. Malinowski‘s (1923) idea of
‗context of situation‘ was stressed and elaborated by J.R. Firth (1957) to include:
a. The relevant features of the participants:
persons, personalities
The verbal action of the participants
The non-verbal action of the participants b. The relevant objects
c. The effects of the verbal actions.
Apart from context of situation, Firth also considers linguistic context as important for describing meaning. The ideas of context of situation and context of culture are taken further by M.A.K. Halliday in his systemic functional theory of language.He classifies social context into context of situation (register) and context of culture (genre).Context of situation refers to all extra-linguistic factors which have some bearing on language use, and its elements which affect linguistic choices in a text include the nature of the audience, the medium, the purpose of communication, etc, while context of culture refers to the socio- cultural background in which language is being used (Halliday and Hasan, 1976).
After Malinowski, the relationship between language and context has been emphasised in most sociolinguistic studies. Turner (1973) describes context as various possibilities available to a speaker in which he may express a single idea, and sees situation as a factor that determines the exact word to be used in a context. Similarly, Ebeling (1973) sees context as the situation in which words are spoken. According to him, to take seriously the point of view of the situation in which words are spoken means to be conscious that every statement has its context from which it can be distinguished, but with which it forms a living unity. Consequently, he continues, a statement can often say more than it makes explicit. It can be understood better than would be the case if it were taken at face value.
Hayakawa (1964) is of the view that the context of an utterance determines its meaning, and since no two contexts are exactly the same, no two meanings can be exactly the same. In line with this view, Fromkin and Rodman (1974) state that the context of an utterance may help to disambiguate a statement where polysemous words are used. They give examples with the sentences ‗She cannot bear children‘ and ‗give me a file.‘ The contexts in which each of these utterances is used determine whether the first utterance means ‗She cannot tolerate children‘ or ‗She is unable to give birth to children, and whether
‗file‘ in the second utterance means a metal file, cardboard folder or line on a parade
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ground. This view of context is in line with the literary theory of ‗le mot juste.‘ Context creates possibilities for interpretation and helps to remove multiple ambiguities that utterances would have had if they had occurred in isolation (Taiwo, 2007).
Bloor and Bloor (2007) opine that language can properly construct meaning when it is part of a wider social event, and that it both needs context and helps to create context.
They further state that when we learn language, we not only learn the unspoken rules of conversation but also those that are handed down from one generation to the next, such as concern for appropriate behaviour, which may differ from one social group to another.
Bloor and Bloor imply two aspects of a context: linguistic and non-linguistic (social context). Still dwelling on social context, Trudgil (1995) states that just as behaviour is appropriate to an individual, it also needs to be suitable for particular occasions and situations, and such is the case with language which is a social behaviour. According to him, language varies not only according to the social characteristics of the speaker but also according to the social context in which he finds himself. To Bloor and Bloor and Trudgil, appropriateness in the use of language is a function of social context. In other words, social context determines the appropriate language to use in a particular occasion.
The importance of social context in determining appropriate patterns of behaviour, both linguistic and extra linguistic is emphasised by Hymes (1974). According to Hymes, a child learning a language acquires, along with a system of grammar, a system of its use regarding persons, places, purposes other modes of communication,... patterns of the sequential use of language in conversation, address, standard routines. Hence the most important task for sociolinguistic research is identification of ‗the rules, patterns, purposes and consequences of language use,‘ and an account of their interrelations. Hymes (1974) equates communicative competence with appropriateness in language use. To him, linguistic theory should not only be involved with explaining speaker-hearer knowledge of grammaticality, but also with the examination of communicative behaviour in the context of culture (Woods, 2006). Thus Hymes identifies two types of context: grammatical context and context of culture. Hymes (1964) identifies the following as components of a speech event: Setting, Participants, Ends, Acts sequence, Key, Instrument, Norms and Genre.
Setting refers to the specific place and time that a speech event takes place and this can affect the style of speaking. Participants include the speakers, listeners, addressors, hearers or the audience. Ends refer to the purpose and goals for which a speech event has been constituted and this is what distinguishes speech events when they have the same setting and participants. Actsequencerefers to the message form and content, and includes
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the issue of topic and topic change. Key involves the tone, manner or spirit with which an event or act is performed. Instrumentrefers to the channel or mode of transmission of a message which can be verbal or non-verbal. Normsrefer to the specific properties which are attached to speaking and also include the interpretation of norms within cultural belief systems. Genrerefers to the textual categories in the text.
Each type of speech event carries its own distinctive features and constrains the participants both in what they may say and how they may say it (Boor and Bloor, 2007). Crystal and Davy (1983) identify situational constraints or variables of a speech event as individuality(Dialect,Time),Discourse (Medium, Participation), and Province (Status,Modality,Singularity)
Individuality includes both physical and psychological personal traits which could give rise to phonetic and graphic distinctiveness of any kind.Dialect indicates a speaker‘s geographic origin (regional dialect) or his location on a linguistically based social scale (social dialect). Time gives exclusively diachronic information as in Modern English, Middle English, or Old English. Discourse refers to the language event or activity and its medium may be speech or writing. Participation indicates whether discourse is monologue or dialogue. Province accounts for the features of language which identify an utterance with those variables in an extra-linguistic context which are defined with reference to the kind of occupational or professional activity being engaged in, for example, public worship, advertisement, etc. Status takes care of such notions as formality, informality, respect, politeness, intimacy, etc. Modality has to do with the specific purpose of an utterance which has led the user to adopt one feature or a set of features rather than another, for example, lecture, reports, essay, etc. Singularity is the evidence of authorship and is continuous and permanent. To Crystal and Davy, these constitute the situation in which language is used, and serve as constraints to language use.
Social context thus comprises context of situation and context of culture.Context of situation (also known as situational context or micro context) is the actual situation, that is, the immediate, usually physical, situation, in which an utterance is produced. It focuses on the various non-linguistic elements involved in the direct production of meanings in a particular instance of communication. On the other hand, the context of culture (also called macro context) refers to the wider situation or context in which the context of situation is embedded. It refers to the social, psychological, and anthropological elements which covertly exert influence on the linguistic choices in a discourse. It includes the traditions,
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the institutions, the discourse communities, the historical context and the knowledge base of the participants (Bloor and Bloor, 2007).
2.1.1.4 Register and genre
The idea, in discourse, that linguistic items cannot be understood outside their context of use has led to theories of register and genre,which Eggins and Martins (1997) describe as technical concepts employed to explain the meaning and function of variation between texts. Linguistic variations relating to context of situation are explained by means of register, while thoserelating to context of culture are explained by means of genre.
2.1.1.4.1 Register
The concept of ‗register‘ is a theoretical explanation of the observation that we use language differently indifferent situations.It is the name given to a variety of language distinguished according to use (Burton, 1976), ―a useful abstraction linking variations of language to variations of social context‖Gregory and Caroll (1978:64).Burton (1976) notes that the category of register is needed when we want to account for what people do with their language. He posits that when we observe language activity in the various contexts in which it takes place, we find differences in the type of language selected as appropriate to the different types of situation. Reinforcing this, Wardaugh(2006) states thatno one speaks the same way all the time and people constantly exploit the nuances of the language they speak for a wide variety of purposes. Looking at every instance of language use, therefore, it is hard to find the neat regularity that internal language knowledge-based approach expects (Cook, 1993).
Originally, beforeHalliday (1978),registers were thought of in terms of their lexical and grammatical characteristics(Butler 1985).Trudgil (1995), for example, who equates register with professional language such as the language of Law, Medicine, Engineering, etc., is of the view that registers are usually characterised solely by vocabulary differences:
either by the use of particular words, or by the use of words in particular sense. Wardaugh (2006) also holds a similar view. He views registers as sets of language items associated with discrete occupational or social groups such as surgeons, airline pilots, bank managers, jazz fans, pimps, etc. In the same vein, the notion of register as subject matter characterised by the lexical items used to handle it can be seen in the conception of register by Quirk and Greenbaum (2000). To them, registers are varieties of language according to the subject matter involved in a discourse, and the switch from one register to another by the same
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speaker involves nothing more than turning to the particular set of lexical items habitually used for handling the subject in question: Law, Cookery, Engineering, Football, etc.
Halliday (1978)proposes that the defining features of registers are semantic.In his Systemic Functional theory, Halliday sees register as the linguistic consequence of the interacting aspects of context: field, tenor and mode. He considers these asthe three contextual variables that specify the register of a particular text. According to him, the field refers to what is being talked about, that is, the subject matter of the discourse, the social activity in which language plays a part (and this is most clearly reflected in the lexical items chosen); the tenor refers to the participants in the discourse, that is, the people involved in the communication, including significant role relationships between them, such as teacher- student, parent-child, doctor-patient, etc.; and the mode refers to how the language is functioning in the interaction, that is, the medium or channel of communication employed by the participants in the discourse, and this may be written or spoken. The three contextual variables, explains Chapelle (1998), are intended to help the linguist to tie linguistic analysis to the relevant contextual variables, and by understanding the semiotic properties of a situation, language users can predict the meanings that are likely to be exchanged and the language likely to be used.Consequently, Halliday and Hasan (1976:23) define register as
‗the set of meanings, the configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specified conditions, along with the words and structures that are used in the realisation of these meanings‘. Similarly, Butler (1985) defines register as a set of semantic resources which is activated by a given combination of field, tenor and mode values.
According to him,it is not the event or state of affairs being talked about that determines the choice of language selected but the convention that a certain kind of language is appropriate to a certain use. He holds that the crucial criteria of any register are to be found in its grammar and lexis; in the collocation of two or more lexical items, and scantily in the grammatical distinctions.To him, any text is an instance of a particular register.
2.1.1.4.2 Genre
Genre is a theory of the relationship of language to its context of culture. Itis viewed by Bloor and Bloor (2007) from three perspectives. Firstly, they see genre as a form of discourse, culturally recognised, which more or less obeys socially agreed structures.
According to them, the term is well known in literary and film studies from where it has been borrowed by discourse analysis. They cite examples of literary and linguistic genres as novels, poems, university lectures, biology lab reports, letters, theatre reviews. Secondly,
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they see genre as also being sometimes used as a term for social events that use regular linguistic and discourse patterns, such as committee meetings, and thus, to some extent can overlap with the term social practice. Thirdly, Bloor and Bloor (2007) view genre from the point of view of the institutions from which they evolved, and in this sense minutes of meetings, annual reports, business correspondence are associated with business institutions;
lectures, seminars, tutorials, textbooks, notes, essays, and examination papers are associated with educational institutions.
Bratcher (online n.d) identifies the various ways in which the term ‗genre‘ has been used in biblical studies. In one sense, he explains, genre refers to larger types of literature that can be recognised by certain general features, such as gospel, apocalyptic, prophecy, wisdom, etc. In another more technical usage, it refers to smaller literary units, such as miracle stories, proverbs, salvation oracles, etc., that could be traced to pre-written oral tradition. In its less technical and more modern sense, genre is a general designation for types of literature that could be identified by shared features and function.
According to Salzman (1998), genre refers to speech acts or events associated with a particular communication situation, and characterised by particular style, form and content.
Eggins and Martins (1997) explain that the linguistic definitions of genre draw on the Russian literary theorist Bakhtin‘s (1986) identification of genres as ‗relatively stable types‘
of interactive utterances, broadening genre to include every day as well as literary genres in both written and spoken modes. They add that different genres are different ways of using language to achieve different culturally established tasks, and texts of different genres are texts which are achieving different purposes in the culture. Thompson (2004) holds a view similar to this. According to him, genre includes the more general idea of what the interactants are doing through language, and how they organise the language event, typically in recognisable stages, in order to achieve that purpose.
Wales (1989) observes that however arbitrary the boundary between one genre and another may appear, what distinguishes them, and what determines how genres are traditionally defined, is usually the set or cluster of structural and stylistic properties that have come to be associated with them, which have come to be dominant in the formalistic sense. He therefore argues that if a genre is a model of writing, it also becomes a model of expectation for the reader, and it is part of our literary competence that we frame a text within a genre from our general knowledge of reading, and so tolerate the death of the hero in a tragedy, but not in a comedy. This is in line with Eginns and Martins (1997:236)
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argument that a useful register and genre theory is one that will allow for both textual prediction and contextual deduction. They explain:
Given a description of the context,it should be possible to predict the meanings that will be at risk and the linguistic features likely to be used to encode them.
Alternatively, given a text, it should be possible to deduce the context in which it was produced, as the linguistic features selected in a text will encode contextual dimensions, both of its immediate context of production and of its generic identity, what task the text is achieving in the culture.‘
This means therefore that, as with register, we become highly conditioned to expect certain conventions within a particular genre, and these determine the way we approach and respond to a text. Genre conventions condition us to see as entirely natural and realistic certain aspects of what we read. They also condition the form (shape and layout), structure (the sequence of ideas), style and content of a particular writing, and make it possible for the reader to expect or anticipate certain things in it.
On the relationship between register and genre,Martin (1997) explains that while register functions on the level of context of situation and connects situation to language, genre functions on the level of context of culture and connects culture to situation. To Martin (1997), therefore, register contextualises language and is in turn contextualised by genre. Thompson (2004), on his part, likens the relationship between register and genre to that between cloth and garment, register being cloth and genre being garment. He submits that a genre deploys the resources of a register (or more than one register) in particular patterns to achieve certain communicative goals.
Since register and genre are important concepts in text-context relationship, an understanding of the two concepts is indispensable in the analysis of a discourse, as language use in a text is bound to be constrained by the register and the genre of such a text, among other contextual factors. An examination of the language of religion as well as epistolary genre is therefore relevant to our rhetorical analysis of Catholic bishops‘ Lenten pastoral letters.
2.1.2 The language of religion
Religion is a form of meaning construction activity which depends heavily on language to express, inculcate and apply (Bouma, 1992; cited in Bouma and Clyne, 1995).
This point is also emphasised by Crystal (online, p.11) when he says that ―language plays a
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fundamental role in the practical understanding, expression, presentation and furtherance of any set of religious beliefs.‖ The language of Christian religion is sometimes described as archaic and far removed from current usage. Onuigbo (1996), for example, describes it as being characterised by predominant use of archaic forms such as resisteth for resists, beareth for bears, doeth for does, wilt and shalt for will and shall, ye and thou for you, etc.
He explains that such archaic forms are used not just to provoke a strong feeling of reverence for the Almighty God, but more importantly to remind the followers of the unchanging nature of God. God is believed to be the same yesterday, today and forever.
Disregard for formal syntactic and punctuation rules, the use of initial capital letters in words that represent the supreme deity and in the pronouns referring to him, even in the middle of the sentence in order to show the supreme authority of God, and lack of strict compliance with concord rules are identified as syntactic features of religious language.
Onuigbo attributes this freedom in the observation of syntactic rules to the measure of freedom enjoyed by the followers of Christian religion in their mode, place and time of their worship.
Onuigbo‘s view of religious language is rather too general. Most of the features he identified are true of some varieties but not true of others. While the use of initial capital letters in words that represent the supreme deity may cut across all varieties of religious language, lack of strict compliance with syntactic rules may not, and this may exist in the older forms of religious language such as the liturgical language.
The language of Christian religion, no doubt, exhibits some common features such as the presence of vocabulary items drawn from the Bible (such as God, Holy Spirit, Jesus Christ, heaven, hell, sin, repentance, salvation, etc.) as well as theuseofbiblical quotations (either direct or indirect). Ebeling (1973) rightly points out that throughout its history, Christianity has always regarded itself as dependent upon the Bible as the source and norm of the language of faith, and as such, it is directly and indirectly nourished by the vocabulary of the Bible. The Bible, as the holy book of Christianity is regarded as the authoritative word of God and almost every Christian religious text makes reference to it.
The reverence with which Christians hold the holy Bible is captured in the following words from a 2002 edition of the Jehovah‘s Witness magazine entitled ‗the Road to Eternal Life:
Have you found it?‘ (cited in Babalola, 2007:144):
The Bible is a precious gift from God. It explains things that we could otherwise never know. It tells about those who live in the spirit realm. It reveals
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God‘s thoughts, His personality, and His purpose. It tells of His dealings with people over thousands of years. It talks of things that will happen in the future.
Religious language is a variety of language that consists of other varieties within it.
This view is buttressed by Crystal (1965, cited in Olaniyan and Oyekola 2007), Brook (1981), Crystal and Davy (1983), and Ogunleye and Olagunju (2007). These sub varieties include the language of liturgy, sermons, theology, scriptures, prayers, songs, etc. The common features of the language of religion, not withstanding, each variety has some linguistic features that characterise it and make it quite strikingly different from other varieties. According to Crystal and Davy (1983), the features are concentrated in the vocabulary and in certain parts of the grammar. Therefore, uniform description of religious language as conservative does not reflect the actual use in the various religious varieties or genres. Most religious genres follow the general development of the language. Only a few linguistic features are clearly diagnostic of religious language, and a few genres have preserved these features extensively in the religious domain.
Consequent upon the diversity of religious language, Holt (2006) argues for a variationist approach to its study. He stresses the need to investigate religious language from the point of view of its particularities, as well as its generalities, rather than dwelling solely on the generalities. In other words, he submits that a more productive approach to the study of the language of religion is that of investigating the actual instances and varieties of religious language in terms of their actual linguistic characteristics, and broadly modelling language as a kind of constellation of discourse held in balance by two opposing forces: a centrifugal attraction for uniformity and generality, and a peripheral pull for individuation and particularity.
Holt (2006) outlines some major background variables that would clearly affect religious language, with a view to underlining the problematic nature of approaches which view it in simple propositional terms. These variables include: religion itself, level, genre, time, context, mode, and language itself. According to him, the language of religion is bound to display variations reflecting the distinction between ‗God language‘ and ‗religious language‘ (religion), between the authentic language of faith itself and the intellectualised language about such faith language (level), stylistic patterning and purposes of religious language within that broad division of level (genre), the distinction between synchronic and diachronic (time), between heteroglossia and intertextuality (context), between oral, written, or pictorial medium (mode), and the influence of multilingualism (language). The variables
